Anthropogenic soils and landscapes of European Russia: Summer school from sea to sea—A didactic prototype

Kuzyakov Y., Zamanian K.

Abstract. Agricultural land covers 5.1×109 ha (ca. 50 % of potentially suitable land area), and agriculture has immense effects on soil formation and degradation. Although we have an advanced mechanistic understanding of individual degradation processes of soils under agricultural use, general concepts of agropedogenesis are absent. A unifying theory of soil development under agricultural practices, of agropedogenesis, is urgently needed. We introduce a theory of anthropedogenesis – soil development under the main factor “humankind” – the sixth factor of soil formation, and deepen it to encompass agropedogenesis as the most important direction of anthropedogenesis. The developed theory of agropedogenesis consists of (1) broadening the classical concept of factors→processes→properties→functions along with their feedbacks to the processes, (2) a new concept of attractors of soil degradation, (3) selection and analysis of master soil properties, (4) analysis of phase diagrams of master soil properties to identify thresholds and stages of soil degradation, and, finally, (5) a definition of the multidimensional attractor space of agropedogenesis. The main feature of anthropedogenesis is the narrowing of soil development to only one function (e.g. crop production for agropedogenesis), and this function is becoming the main soil-forming factor. The focus on only one function and the disregard of other functions inevitably lead to soil degradation. We show that the factor humankind dominates over the effects of the five natural soil-forming factors and that agropedogenesis is therefore much faster than natural soil formation. The direction of agropedogenesis is largely opposite to that of natural soil development and is thus usually associated with soil degradation. In contrast to natural pedogenesis leading to divergence of soil properties, agropedogenesis leads to their convergence because of the efforts to optimize conditions for crop production. Agricultural practices lead soil development toward a quasi-steady state with a predefined range of measured properties – attractors (an attractor is a minimal or maximal value of a soil property toward which the property will develop via long-term intensive agricultural use from any natural state). Based on phase diagrams and expert knowledge, we define a set of “master properties” (bulk density and macroaggregates, soil organic matter content, C:N ratio, pH and electrical conductivity – EC, microbial biomass and basal respiration) as well as soil depth (A and B horizons). These master properties are especially sensitive to land use and determine the other properties during agropedogenesis. Phase diagrams of master soil properties help identify thresholds and stages of soil degradation, each of which is characterized by one dominating process. Combining individual attractors in a multidimensional attractor space enables predicting the trajectory and the final state of agrogenic soil development and developing measures to combat soil degradation. In conclusion, the suggested new theory of anthro- and agropedogenesis is a prerequisite for merging various degradation processes into a general view and for understanding the functions of humankind not only as the sixth soil-forming factor but also as an ecosystem engineer optimizing its environment to fulfil a few desired functions.

Miller B.A., Brevik E.C., Pereira P., Schaetzl R.J.

The geography of soil is more important today than ever before. Models of environmental systems and myriad direct field applications depend on accurate information about soil properties and their spatial distribution. Many of these applications play a critical role in managing and preparing for issues of food security, water supply, and climate change. The capability to deliver soil maps with the accuracy and resolution needed by land use planning, precision agriculture, as well as hydrologic and meteorologic models is, fortunately, on the horizon due to advances in the geospatial revolution. Digital soil mapping, which utilizes spatial statistics and data provided by modern geospatial technologies, has now become an established area of study for soil scientists. Over 100 articles on digital soil mapping were published in 2018. The first and second generations of soil mapping thrived from collaborations between Earth scientists and geographers. As we enter the dawn of the third generation of soil maps, those collaborations remain essential. To that end, we review the historical connections between soil science and geography, examine the recent disconnect between those disciplines, and draw attention to opportunities for the reinvigoration of the long-standing field of soil geography. Finally, we emphasize the importance of this reinvigoration to geographers.

Slukovskaya M.V., Vasenev V.I., Ivashchenko K.V., Morev D.V., Drogobuzhskaya S.V., Ivanova L.A., Kremenetskaya I.P.

The copper-nickel factory's emissions in the Murmansk region, Russia, led to the degradation of plant cover and topsoil with the subsequent formation of industrial barrens. In this study, the industrial barrens were remediated by means of Technosol engineering, when grasses were sown on the two different types of mining wastes (carbonatite and serpentinite-magnesite) covered by hydroponic vermiculite. The serpentinite-magnesite waste was significantly different from the carbonatite waste in the content of silicon (Si) and manganese (Mn), pH, and texture. Both wastes had an alkaline pH level and high content of calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg). The vegetation and Technosol properties at the remediated sites were analyzed in 2017 and compared to the initial state (2010 year) to assess the efficiency of the long-term remediation. The quality and sustainability of Technosols based on the serpentinite-magnesite wastes were substantially higher compared to the carbonatite-based Technosol. Biomass and a projective cover of the grass community depended on Si content in the original mining waste and were found to be higher in the serpentinite-magnesite Technosol. The content of organic carbon and its fractions, microbial biomass and basal respiration after seven years of Technosol evolution was comparable to natural values. These parameters were directly related to plant cover state and were inversely proportional to copper (Cu) content in Technosol. The Technosol development led to the reduction of nickel (Ni) and Cu migration in soil-plant ecosystems due to neutralization and adsorption properties of mining wastes and phytostabilization by underground parts of grass communities. The Technosol development in its early stage of pedogenesis indicates the efficiency of applied remediation technology to the degraded acidic soil under the conditions of industrial atmospheric pollution.

Vasenev V.I., Morel J.L., Nehls T., Shaw R.K., Kim K.J., Hajiaghayeva R.A.

Journal of Soils and Sediments publishes the main outcomes of SUITMA 9 Conference in its Special Issue. SUITMA (Soils of Urban, Industrial, Traffic, Mining and Military Areas) working group organizes conferences biannually all over the world. The ninth conference organized in Moscow in May 2017 involved more than 215 speakers from 25 countries, whose presentations focused on challenges and opportunities of urbanization for soil functions and ecosystem services. The main outcomes of SUITMA 9 were analyzed in comparison to the previous SUIMTA conferences and the main topics were distinguished. Manuscripts accepted for publishing in the Special Issue were reviewed and presented. Comparison of the topics highlighted in different special issues highlighted the evolution of the SUITMA studies from fundamental morphological descriptions and classifications to applied studies on soil engineering, assessment of SUITMA functions and ecosystem services. The manuscripts accepted to the Special Issue covered included various case studies of SUITMA ecosystem services (e.g. global and local climate regulation, biodiversity maintenance and improvement, nutrients balance and recreation) and disservices (e.g. pollution by heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and sulfur). The increasing role of SUITMA studies for urban management and decision making was concluded.

Chakraborty S., Li B., Weindorf D.C., Deb S., Acree A., De P., Panda P.

In this study, elemental data from portable X-ray fluorescence (PXRF) spectrometry was used to test the efficiency of four machine learning techniques (random forest; linear and nonlinear support vector machine; classification and regression tree) for distinguishing three land use types in India based upon scans of mineral surface (0–20 cm) soil. Results showed similar performance among the four tested algorithms, with classification accuracy of a randomly selected validation set ranging from 83% to 91%. The classification and regression tree was favored based upon simple “IF AND THEN” rules which make classification of the data simple. In sum, PXRF data was shown highly effective at differentiating land use types in India. Future work should focus on a larger number of land use classification types and possible combination of PXRF data with complimentary proximal sensing datasets (e.g., visible near infrared spectroscopy).

Vasenev V.I., Van Oudenhoven A.P., Romzaykina O.N., Hajiaghaeva R.A.

A review of Russian and foreign approaches to analyze and assess the ecological and socioeconomic role of urban and technogenic soils is made in the context of the two popular concepts: the ecological functions of soils and ecosystem services. The modern definitions, classification, and evaluation of ecosystem services and their relationships with soil functions are considered both in general and in relation to urban and technogenic soils. Despite some methodological differences, the work shows that the concepts are closely related, and their joint use is highly promising. Three practical examples for the cities of Moscow, Hangzhou, and Hong Kong show a consistent transition from the analysis of soil properties and functions to the assessment of ecosystem services and decision making in engineering, urban improvement, and sustainable urban development.

Callow D., May P., Johnstone D.

Vasenev V., Kuzyakov Y.

Urban soils and cultural layers may accumulate C over centuries and consequently large C stocks may be sequestered beneath cities. Processes and mechanisms leading to high C accumulation in urban soils remain unknown. Data on soil organic carbon (SOC), soil inorganic carbon (SIC), black (pyrogenic) carbon (BC), and nitrogen contents and stocks in urban soils were collected from 100 peer‐reviewed papers. The database (770 data points for SOC, SIC, and BC stocks from 116 cities worldwide) was analysed considering the effects of climate and urban‐specific factors (city size, age, and functional zoning) on C stocks. The processes of C accumulation specific for urban soils were analysed, and C sequestration rates were assessed. For the wide range of climatic conditions, total C content in urban soils was 1.5–3 times higher, and C accumulation was much deeper compared with natural soils, resulting in 3–5 times larger total C stocks. Urban SOC stocks increased with latitude, whereas SIC stocks were less affected by climate. City size and age were the main factors explaining intercity differences in C stocks. The intracity variability of C and N stocks was dominated by functional zoning: Large SOC and N stocks in residential areas and large SIC and BC stocks in industrial zones and roadsides were consistent across all climates and for cities of various sizes and ages. Substantial amounts of SOC, SIC, and N are sequestered in the subsoils, cultural layers, and sealed soils, underlining the importance of these hidden stocks for C assessments. Long‐term С input from outside the cities and associated C accumulation coincided with upward soil growth of ~50 cm per century, and continuous accumulation of 15–30 kg C/m2 per century in urban soils and cultural layers. We conclude that, despite the relatively small area of cities, urban soils are hot spots of long‐term soil C sequestration worldwide, and the importance of urban soils will increase in future with global urbanization.

Sarzhanov D.A., Vasenev V.I., Vasenev I.I., Sotnikova Y.L., Ryzhkov O.V., Morin T.

C-sequestration, as a function of soils, is known to help mitigate climate change. However, the potential of urban soils to be C-sinks or sources, is widely unknown. This study aims to understand the role and significance of urban soils in the C-balance of the region. It reveals several important findings about the C-balance capacities of urban soils and the multiple factors affecting this balance. This two-year study focused on soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks and CO 2 emissions of urban soils in the city of Kursk, located in the Central Chernozemic region of Russia, an area known to have some of the most fertile soils in the world. SOС stocks and emissions were studied in residential, recreational, and industrial functional zones and in comparison to corresponding natural reference soils to analyze the influence of urbanization on C turnover Urban soils were found to store 20 to 50 kg С m − 2 in 1.5 m layer; 10–30% less than in corresponding natural Luvic Chernozems and Chernic Phaeozems, but greater than what has been reported for many other cities. The urban soils with developed cultural layers stored more C in subsoil compared to the natural soils. Emissions of CO 2 in urban soils, however, were higher than from Chernic Phaeozems but comparable to those from Luvic Chernozems. The CO 2 /SOC stocks ratio in urban soils was two–three times higher than in natural soils. These outcomes point to the intensive C turnover and low sustainability of SOC stocks in urban soils. This study found evidence that the recent urbanization of the Chernozemic region has adversely affected the C balance. Natural soils in the region are important C sinks, however they can convert to C sources in result of urbanization.

Field D.J., Yates D., Koppi A.J., McBratney A.B., Jarrett L.

The teaching-research-industry-learning (TRIL) nexus has been used to develop a framework for the learning and teaching of soil science applicable to a range of recipients, particularly campus-based students and practicing farm advisors. To develop such a framework, a starting point was to establish a core body of knowledge (CBoK) for soil science that would meet industry needs, in this case the grains production industry. To develop the CBoK relevant to the grains industry, academics and industry professionals were consulted by online means (a Delphi study) and face-to-face forums to refine the outcomes of the Delphi process. The CBoK was found to be heavily content-rich with little multidisciplinary components yet solving industry problems often requires a multidisciplinary approach. Application of the TRIL model allows the development of a learning framework more suited to real word needs. The development of a learning framework able to meet industry needs includes authentic complex scenarios that will also benefit student learning.

Lokoshchenko M.A., Korneva I.A.

Long-term measurements of the soil temperature on different depths in Moscow and its suburbs have been collected since the end of the XIX century. At Moscow University this parameter has been measured simultaneously at two locations since 1954: one below the usual natural cover and one below a special naked area. Following the air warming, in the last 116 years the soil temperature increased in Moscow by 1.8–1.9 °C (at 160 cm depth). During the last half a century the temperature increased much faster at the University below the naked area (+0.04 °C/year) than below the natural cover (meaning the snow cover in winter and grass and sod cover during other seasons): +0.02 °C/year. The spatial distribution of the soil temperature in Moscow region has been discussed using the simultaneous data of ground meteorological network. Mean annual values of the surface temperature (0 cm) and soil temperature at eight depths from 20 to 320 cm have been analyzed. Mean annual soil temperature in the city center is higher by up to 1.0–1.2 °C than at the city periphery and by up to 1.6–1.7 °C than in Moscow region rural zone (at the depths of 120 and 160 cm). At smaller depths these differences are a bit less but still statistically significant. Thus, an underground urban heat island exists at any depth. The evident cause of this phenomenon is human activity which has resulted in a lot of factors. A special index has been suggested for estimation of the average intensity of the underground urban heat island. According this index, the mean difference of the soil temperatures can amount to +0.6…+0.8 °C if we compare the city with the rural zone and from +0.4 to +0.6 °C if we compare only urban periphery (without city center) with the rural zone. Another discovery was that the underground heat island evidently extends below the depth of 320 cm. The annual dynamic of the difference between urban and rural soil temperatures reaches its maximum in winter (+0.9…+1.2 °C depending on the depth) due to strong urban heating and drops to its minimum in summer (−0.5…+0.4 °C at different depths).

Lorenz K., Lal R.

AbstractLand-use and land-cover change (LULCC) by urbanization will likely replace agricultural expansion as the dominant source of transformation of the terrestrial biosphere. Properly managed urban soils can offset some of the associated carbon (C) losses from urban soils and vegetation by retaining stabilized soil organic carbon (SOC) or soil inorganic carbon (SIC) such as mineral-associated C, black carbon (BC), and stable carbonate minerals. For example, SOC stocks of up to 810 Mg C ha–1 to 1.5 m depth (Serebryanye Prudy, Russia) and SIC stocks of up to 300 Mg C ha–1 to 2.5 m depth (Newcastle upon Tyne, UK) have been reported, but data on urban soil C storage are scanty. Aside from contributing to climate change mitigation, protecting and increasing SOC stocks support critically important soil-derived ecosystem services. Thus, C-friendly soil and land-use management practices must be developed and implemented to enhance soil-derived ecosystem services in urban areas, and the resilience of urban ecosy...

Prokof’eva T.V., Gerasimova M.I., Bezuglova O.S., Bakhmatova K.A., Gol’eva A.A., Gorbov S.N., Zharikova E.A., Matinyan N.N., Nakvasina E.N., Sivtseva N.E.

The results of the Internet discussion on the classification of urban soils aimed at evaluating their possible inclusion into the modern Russian soil classification system adopted by a wide range of specialists are presented. The first step was to address the urban diagnostic horizons as the basis for identifying soil types according to the rules of the Russian soil classification. New diagnostic horizons were proposed for urban soils: urbic (UR), filled compost-mineral (RAT), and filled peat (RT). The combination of these horizons with other diagnostic horizons and layers of technogenic materials correspond to different soil types. At the subtype level, the diagnostic properties (qualifiers) that may reflect both natural phenomena (gley, alkalinity) and technogenic impacts on the soils (urbistratified; phosphatic; or poorly expressed urban—ur, rat, rt) are used. Some corrections were proposed for the system of parent materials in urban environments. Urban soils formerly described in another nomenclature—urbanozems, urbiquasizems, and culturozems—are correlated with the taxa in all the trunks of the system. The proposals accepted can be used for the next updated version of the new Russian soil classification system.

Morel J.L., Chenu C., Lorenz K.

PurposeThe sustainable use and management of global soils is one of the greatest challenges for the future. In the urban ecosystem, soils play an essential role with their functions and ecosystem services. However, they are still poorly taken into consideration to enhance the sustainable development of urban ecosystems. This paper proposes a categorization of soils of urbanized areas, i.e., areas strongly affected by human activities, according to their ecosystem services.Materials and methodsFocus is put first on ecosystem services provided by non-urban soils. Then, the characteristics and number of services provided by soil groups of urbanized areas and their importance are given for each soil group.Results and discussionSoils of urbanized areas are here defined as SUITMAs, because they include soils of urban, sensu stricto, industrial, traffic, mining, and military areas. This definition refers to a large number of soil types of strongly anthropized areas. SUITMAs were organized in four soil groups, i.e., (1) pseudo-natural soils, (2) vegetated engineered soils, (3) dumping site soils, and (4) sealed soils. For each soil group, examples for ecosystem services were given, evaluated, and ranked.ConclusionsThis proposal contributes to foster the dialogue between urban spatial planning and soil scientists to improve both soil science in the city and recognition of SUITMAs regarding their role for the sustainable development of urban ecosystems and, in particular, to enhance multifunctional soils in urban areas.

Korneykova M., Vasenev V., Ivashchenko K., Saltan N., Slukovskaya M., Kozlova E., Vasilieva M., Sarzhanov D., Gunina A.

Carella A., Bulacio Fischer P.T., Massenti R., Lo Bianco R.

Climate change poses significant challenges to agricultural productivity, making the efficient management of water resources essential for sustainable crop production. The assessment of plant water status is crucial for understanding plant physiological responses to water stress and optimizing water management practices in agriculture. Proximal and remote sensing techniques have emerged as powerful tools for the non-destructive, efficient, and spatially extensive monitoring of plant water status. This review aims to examine the recent advancements in proximal and remote sensing methodologies utilized for assessing the water status, consumption, and irrigation needs of fruit tree crops. Several proximal sensing tools have proved useful in the continuous estimation of tree water status but have strong limitations in terms of spatial variability. On the contrary, remote sensing technologies, although less precise in terms of water status estimates, can easily cover from medium to large areas with drone or satellite images. The integration of proximal and remote sensing would definitely improve plant water status assessment, resulting in higher accuracy by integrating temporal and spatial scales. This paper consists of three parts: the first part covers current plant-based proximal sensing tools, the second part covers remote sensing techniques, and the third part includes an update on the on the combined use of the two methodologies.

Aleksandrov N., Evseenko A., Seregin I., Buzylev A., Yaroslavtsev A.

Transition to smart agriculture demands tools for non-invasive monitoring of cultivated plants biomass. One of the most widespread and informative biomass indicators is leaf area index (LAI). LICOR 2200C has become de facto standard in modern ecological research for non-invasive LAI estimation. In this paper, on the example of spring wheat crops of the RSAU-MTAA experimental field, the efficiency of yield and biomass parameters prediction using data from AccuPAR LP-80 and LI-COR LAI 2200C was compared. LAI data from both devices obtained at different phenological phases of spring wheat were used as predictor for spring wheat yield models. Comparing the generated models show superiority of AccuPAR LP-80 in yield prediction while LI-COR LAI 2200C shown better result in overall biomass prediction.

Tikhonova M.V., Buzylev A.V.

The paper discusses the use of a decision support system (DSS) for the purpose of automated agroecological assessment of chernozem soils of the Penza region in comparison with the agroecological classification of soil cover based on standard agrochemical characteristics. The results show the rationality of using DSS, as well as the increased agroecological potential of the analyzed old arable field. Calculations made it possible to identify limiting soil-ecological parameters, such as insufficient content of mobile forms of phosphorus and the density of the arable soil horizon, as well as to calculate the soil-ecological quality rating both for the entire field and for a regular hectare grid.

Buzylev А., Tihonova M., Taller E., Vasenev I.

The article presents the results of modeling the cultivation of barley of the Eifel variety on leached chernozems of the Bashmakovsky district of the Penza region. In order to carry out modeling, the framework Local information and reference system for the optimization of land use was deeply adapted. The adaptation of the software modules to the climatic and soil conditions of a particular study area allowed one to reach 7% errors in modeling the cultivation of agricultural crops in the presence of a set of indicators necessary for constructing a model. Technological calculations of the model made it possible to reduce the number of minimum required technological operations, as well as to rationally distribute the application of mineral fertilizers for the planned yield. The economic calculations of the model made it possible to achieve a high production profitability of 66 ± 7%. The constructed model was tested on the experimental field of «Bashmakovskiy khleb» JSC in 2020. Practical verification has shown the possibility of using the model in agricultural production under normal climatic conditions and its high correlation with the actual results obtained [1]. Statistical analysis of the calculated data of the model and the actual yield with the achieved economic indicators in the conditions of the model field showed a level of reliability of calculations of 95%.

Cheng Z., Hettiarachchi G.M., Kim K.

Research on Soils in Urban, Industrial, Traffic, Mining and Military Areas (SUITMA) has been presented at biennial SUITMA conferences held in cities around the world. Soils from these areas often present environmental, ecological, and health risks and can limit ecological functions and ecosystem services. However, as with all soils, they are an integral part of the local ecosystem. In urban areas in particular, soil is a critical resource and can play a key role in the long-term sustainability and resiliency of cities. This special section contains five papers from the SUITMA 10 conference held in Seoul, South Korea, in 2019. They cover diverse topics that include urban soil properties, risk from contaminated soils, biological indicators for ecological functions, air deposition in urban gardens, and international summer field school opportunities. This section highlights research on anthropogenic soils conducted by the SUITMA community to promote better understanding and management of these soils.