Electronic waste management in Northern India: a regional case study of Chandigarh

Traverso M., Mankaa R., Concetta Pedalá M., Covais A.

The transition towards a circular economy, which has emerged as a promising approach to achieving sustainable development and which involves the reuse of e-waste, may cause significant social impacts on vulnerable groups if it is not addressed in a proper manner. The European Union has established a clear circular economy plan with particular attention on e-waste treatment. However, a considerable amount of e-waste still ends up outside Europe, mainly in African Countries. Social Life Cycle Assessment (S-LCA) has been recognized as a valid methodology to assess the social impacts caused by products or services to stakeholders involved along the life cycle perspective. Most S-LCA studies are conducted in the formal sector; however, informal sectors constitute a crucial element of the economy in emerging and developing countries. In particular, formal waste management practices are complemented by the informal sector in Indonesia, African and Latin American countries. The informal sector represents an important support element. Few studies have been conducted on the social impacts of the e-waste sector and even fewer have been implemented following the guidelines of Social Life Cycle Assessment for Products and Organizations. However, we are still far from a complete overview of the social impacts in the e-waste sector, in particular for developing countries. Knowing that most e-waste through illegal exportation ends up in African countries, a social hotspot analysis has been conducted on the electronic sector in African countries, focusing on Nigeria and Ghana, which are the most affected. The study also identifies a set of indicators needed to assess the social performance of e-waste in Nigeria and Ghana.

Juárez Pastor L., Subramanian V., Cucurachi S., Ghorbani A.

Solid waste management in low- and middle-income countries like India faces significant challenges due to the increasing waste generation that surpasses the current capacity. Therefore, the informal waste sector (IWS) is more vital than ever in handling consumer waste alongside municipal solid waste management (SWM) systems. However, the integration of the IWS into formal waste management systems remains unresolved due to adverse social and economic conditions. This study focuses on identifying the root causes that hinder the integration of the IWS in India's waste management system, using the city of Chennai as a case study. Adopting an institutional perspective, we analyse the institutional landscape of the waste management system, considering both formal rules (in policy documents) and informal rules (i.e., social norms and routines). The institutional network analysis reveals a significant misalignment in perceptions among governance levels concerning the integration of the IWS. The study shows a considerable gap between rules-in-form and rules-in-use, leading to 1) Preclusion of waste pickers in collecting door-to-door source-segregated waste (i.e., recyclables). 2) Unfair pricing in transactions with small aggregators. 3) Lack of ID cards for waste pickers. These barriers are ultimately rooted in caste discrimination, misalignment between governance levels, and the exclusion of waste pickers in the policymaking process. In conclusion, understanding and rectifying the institutional gaps and discriminatory practices are essential steps towards effectively integrating the IWS in India's waste management system, promoting a more inclusive and sustainable approach to waste management.

Harfadli M.M., Ramadan B.S., Rachman I., Matsumoto T.

This study discusses the positive and negative characteristics of and challenges faced by the informal waste sector in developing countries. We conducted a literature review from 2012 to 2022 to examine informal waste-related work and living conditions. We used PRISMA, qualitative content analysis, and article synthesis. Based on PRISMA results, ninety-two eligible articles were reviewed. Qualitative content analysis identified four research clusters: collecting recyclable waste in the informal waste sector, the working conditions of informal waste workers, integrating the informal waste sector into the waste management system, and barriers to formalizing the informal waste sector in middle-income countries. Meanwhile, research trends during the period 2012–2016 show that research on informal waste management was conducted to determine the role or position of informal recycling systems in the waste management system. Later (during 2017–2018), researchers shifted their focus to formalizing the informal waste sector and its implications and risks. The current study (2019–2020) focuses on plastic waste or waste recyclables, their economic contributions, and identifying hazards in the informal waste sector. The terms frequently appearing in the qualitative content analysis describe four main factors directly related to the informal waste sector: health, social, regulatory, and economic. The synthesis results revealed the following characteristics in the informal waste sector: organizational cooperation, purchasing and selling transactions, and processing. By understanding these characteristics, authorities can support the informal waste sector appropriately. This overview provides recommendations for effective waste management planning in developing countries and for improving the conditions of the informal waste sector.

Ravi S., Venkatesan S., Arun kumar, Lakshmi Kanth Reddy K.

Electronic waste (e-waste) is considered a major issue that our world is tackling nowadays. This electronic waste causes various health issues to animals as well as human beings which further results in environmental pollution in developing countries like India. To overcome these issues, proper e-waste collection is proposed by using the dynamic sine cosine-based neural network optimization (DSCNN) approach. The major objective of this approach involves collecting waste from the individual, hence handling the widespread adoption and use of smartphones. To enhance waste planning collection, residents upload a photograph of their waste to the waste collection company’s server, which mechanically recognizes and categorizes the image. A new classification and detection scheme using the DSCNN approach is proposed for efficient e-waste collection planning and correctly detects the type and quantity of waste components in images. The identification and classification accuracy of the uploaded images is very accurate; this method describes the e-waste collection process in various streets and buildings in Maharashtra, India. Experimental results describe that the proposed approach readily achieves the proper allocation of vehicle collection, vehicle routing plan, and household e-waste collection, resulting in reduced collection costs. Moreover, the proposed DSCNN method is compared to various other methods like random forest algorithm (RFA), fractional henry gas optimization (FHGO), behavior-based swarm model by the fuzzy controller (BSFC), and deep learning convolutional neural network (DL-CNN). The DSCNN approach yielded an e-waste collection detection accuracy of 97%. The accuracy rates of 94%, 95%, 93%, and 92.15% are obtained from the DL-CNN, FHGO, BSFC, and RFA.

Sharma V.K., Gupta A., Kumar A., Alfahad, Singh M.K.

Jishaant, Chowdhury A.

Abstract The informal e-waste dismantling community consists of individuals who recycle and dismantle electronic waste (e-waste) outside of formal regulations. This informality is due to a lack of knowledge about proper waste handling, complex formalization procedures, competition from the formal sector, and economic challenges. Community-based organizations (CBOs) play a vital role in addressing these issues. CBOs support the formalization of informal dismantlers by providing licensed workspaces, access to recycling technologies, and assistance in transitioning to the formal economy. Formalizing the informal e-waste dismantling community through CBOs ensures compliance with regulations, promotes sustainability, and provides economic opportunities and social benefits. Case study analysis revealed that E-waste dismantler communities formed Community level, Sub-provincial Level, and Provincial level representatives partnered with local government bodies and organizations to attain socio-economic stability. They also contribute to capacity building, collaboration, and access to resources, and markets, supporting the transition to a formal sustainable e-waste management system.

Sengupta D., Ilankoon I.M., Kang K.D., Chong M.N.

Rapid advances in electronics and telecommunications technologies have contributed significantly to making e-waste one of the largest and fastest-growing solid waste streams. India produces over 3.23 million tonnes of e-waste each year. Over 90% of the total e-waste generated in the country is processed by the informal waste management sector. Informal waste collectors in India are known as ‘kabadiwalas’. Many people in India employ their services to discard household solid waste items, including e-waste. However, the percentage of people disposing of their e-waste to kabadiwalas is unknown. Moreover, detailed research studies on kabadiwalas’ waste collection activities are very limited to date. A case study was therefore formulated to determine the likelihood of e-waste disposal to kabadiwalas and their solid waste collection strategies, including e-waste fraction. A global positioning system (GPS) based real-time waste collection route tracking method was employed. The results indicated that many people in India (∼45% of survey respondents) prefer to dispose of their e-waste to kabadiwalas. Based on the GPS tracking results, the informal waste collectors were found to travel considerable distances using manual and modified three-wheeler vehicles (20–30 km per day) to collect household waste, out of which e-waste accounted for about 10%. It was deduced that their large workforce and low operating costs enable them to collect e-waste from households all over the country effectively. The results from this study indicate that kabadiwalas play an integral role in the e-waste management system of India and that their integration into the existing formal e-waste industry could help establish improved e-waste management and value recovery operations in India.

Singh S., Routroy S., Dasgupta M.S.

Despite electronic waste (e-waste) rules in force, there is still a huge gap in awareness among communities about the handling of discarded Electrical and Electronic Equipment. Understanding consumer perception about e-waste disposal and its flow holds a vital role in efficient e-waste management in a developing nation like India, where e-waste generation is rapidly increasing. The current study is based on a nationwide survey of consumer consumption patterns, awareness and disposal behaviour. A survey is conducted with a sample size of 491 respondents from urban, semi-urban and rural India with an annual household income of more than INR 0.5 million. Data about individuals and households are captured along with other useful primary data to measure consumer behaviour towards e-waste disposal methods. The results show that resident’s education level and age significantly correlate with a possible cause of e-waste disposal behaviour. A limited number of consumers have adopted the formal disposal method, whereas the informal disposal system is prevalent and dominant in all regions. This research provides a scientific analysis of the various choices and preferences of e-waste disposal methods. It is expected to help policymakers and stakeholders to adopt more effective public e-waste disposal rules.

Luthra A., Lowe J., Ochoa Berkley K.

Over the past decade, urban India has seen the emergence and proliferation of startups that are offering on-demand recycling services using web- and mobile-based platforms. These firms replicate the services of informal workers known as kabadiwalas who have historically made their livelihoods through trade in recyclable materials. Existing analyses of platformization in developed world contexts fail to explain the rise of platformization in India because of the particularity of the relationship between platform firms and the informal economy. This paper contextualizes the rise of platform recycling startups within a generally conducive policy environment focused on improving sanitation, encouraging entrepreneurship, and expanding the use of information technology in India. An examination of business models deployed by these firms reveals how and why the structure of recycling markets does not allow for a ‘lean’ model typically adopted by platform firms in other sectors. Rather than merely connecting service providers to consumers, these startups rely on aggregating recyclable materials and dispossessing intermediaries such as kabadiwalas in order to generate surplus value in an otherwise saturated market. Relying on an analysis of online content about these new firms, this paper examines the strategies that firms use to legitimize themselves and delegitimize kabadiwalas in an attempt to displace and dispossess them from the market space.

Sulaiman Zangina A., Abubakar A., Ahmed I.M., Muhammad Badamasi M., Da’u Sa’adu S.

Electronic waste, also known as e-waste, is any part or entire electrical or electronic product that has reached the end of its useful life. In recent years, e-waste has emerged as an issue of increasing concern as its sources, categories, collection, and treatment can lead to significant environmental damage. Moreover, there are inadequate studies about how e-waste is collected, classified, distributed, treated, and disposed of in developing countries. The objective of this study is to examine the spatial analysis of e-waste clusters (collection and treatment points), sources, and categories in Kano metropolis, Nigeria. We conducted focus group discussions (FGD) at the e-waste collection centres to estimate the number of extractors at each site. KoBo Collect Tool Box was used to generate the inventory of the e-waste collection and treatment points, while ArcGIS 10.4 was used to map the spatial distribution of the e-waste collection and treatment points and perform locational analysis. The findings revealed that repairers, scavengers, companies, institutions, and households are the major sources of e-waste in Kano metropolis. A significant portion of the e-waste collected consists of lamps, screens, small equipment, temperature exchange equipment, and information and communications devices. In Kano, however, there are few e-waste collection and treatment sites. Among the key e-waste collection sites are Kurmi and Sabon Gari Markets, while Kuka Bulukiya and PRP Gidan Ruwa serve as treatment hotspots in Kano metropolis. In spite of this, the distribution of e-waste collection points and treatment facilities is highly random due to their distance from one another.

Vijayan R.V., Krishnan M.M., Parayitam S., Anantharaman Duraisami S.P., Saravanaselvan N.R.

The purpose of this paper is to look into the causes and consequences of e-waste recycling intentions. A conceptual model is developed and tested using the theory of planned behaviour (TPB). We investigated the impact of attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control on household residents' intention to recycle e-waste. Bringing habits and convenience together in a prominent model that predicts people's recycling behaviour. Households play a significant role in the growth of the e-waste problem because they are at the forefront of the consumption, generation, and management processes. This study aims to examine the e - waste recycling behaviour among households (n = 228) in a metropolitan city in southern India using a structured survey method using a questionnaire. As a statistical technique for data analysis, hierarchical regression was used. Based on the results of a hierarchical regression analysis, I attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control are positively connected to recycling intention, and (ii) recycling intention, habits, and convenience are favourably related to recycling behaviour in households. Good explanatory power and confirmation of its robustness are shown by the integrated model's ability to account for more than 53% of the variance in households' e-waste recycling behaviour. Attitudes and subjective norms are shown to be major determinants of households' inclination to recycle electronic garbage. There is an inverse relationship between perceived behavioural control and the intent to recycle electronic waste. Surprisingly, other characteristics like routine and convenience reveal a considerable influence on people's propensity to recycle e-waste at home. The current study is limited by the common method bias and the social desirability bias because it relies on self-report measures. On the other hand, proper statistical methods were used in this work to minimize such distortions. Reducing the amount of electronic waste is predicted to lessen environmental degradation, and when local governments raise awareness about electronic waste among inhabitants, 'green behaviour' is encouraged. The findings of this research shed new light on the recycling habits of locals. To the best of our knowledge, the conceptual model created and tested on the Indian subcontinent adds to the growing literature on recycling intention and behaviour.

Srivastav A.L., Markandeya, Patel N., Pandey M., Pandey A.K., Dubey A.K., Kumar A., Bhardwaj A.K., Chaudhary V.K.

The electronic and electrical industrial sector is exponentially growing throughout the globe, and sometimes, these wastes are being disposed of and discarded with a faster rate in comparison to the past era due to technology advancements. As the application of electronic devices is increasing due to the digitalization of the world (IT sector, medical, domestic, etc.), a heap of discarded e-waste is also being generated. Per-capita e-waste generation is very high in developed countries as compared to developing countries. Expansion of the global population and advancement of technologies are mainly responsible to increase the e-waste volume in our surroundings. E-waste is responsible for environmental threats as it may contain dangerous and toxic substances like metals which may have harmful effects on the biodiversity and environment. Furthermore, the life span and types of e-waste determine their harmful effects on nature, and unscientific practices of their disposal may elevate the level of threats as observed in most developing countries like India, Nigeria, Pakistan, and China. In the present review paper, many possible approaches have been discussed for effective e-waste management, such as recycling, recovery of precious metals, adopting the concepts of circular economy, formulating relevant policies, and use of advance computational techniques. On the other hand, it may also provide potential secondary resources valuable/critical materials whose primary sources are at significant supply risk. Furthermore, the use of machine learning approaches can also be useful in the monitoring and treatment/processing of e-wastes. In 2019, ~ 53.6 million tons of e-wastes generated worldwide. Discarded e-wastes may be hazardous in nature due to presence of heavy metal compositions. Precious metals like gold, silver, and copper can also be procured from e-wastes. Advance tools like artificial intelligence/machine learning can be useful in the management of e-wastes.

Wang C., Zhao F., Handwerker C.

<abstract> <p>Minimizing informal recycling activities is critical for the sustainable end-of-life treatment of electronics. Recent studies have started to revisit the concept of informality in recycling and reported empirical examples where informal sectors coordinate with formal sectors, jointly contributing to a greener recycling solution. This case study examines the systematic effort to transform and integrate the informal sector into the formal recycling industry for managing e-waste in Guiyu, China. This paper analyzes the policy design, implementation, technology development and market establishment of Guiyu's formal sector that enabled the evolution of the local informal recycling industry. The results show that the salient success factor is to offer advanced and centralized e-waste treatment by constructing a formal recycling sector while maintaining the competitive characteristics of the old informal businesses, including manual dismantling and private e-waste collection networks. Those characteristics ensured increased reuse value and sufficient e-waste sources. Meanwhile, the study found that many challenges and conflicts during this transition are rooted in the often-overlooked societal and historical contexts that profoundly shaped the local recycling industry. Authorities of regions facing challenges regulating informal recycling of e-waste, especially developing countries, could initiate similar systems based on local realities and the collaboration between formal and informal sectors to minimize the environmental and societal consequences of unregulated informal e-waste recycling.</p> </abstract>

Qureshi M.H.

Culture, in a society, evolves over long period of time when people interact with the elements of nature and social norms created by them. It also gets enriched when people of diverse social background live and interact with each other. Culture includes both the tangible (material) and non-tangible (non-material) elements. The diversity in their habitats as a result of location in a particular ecological niche results in diversity of their house types, building materials, size and shape of the houses, archaeological characteristics adjusting to weather conditions and the networks available for movement and circulation. The diversity in faith has resulted in the creation of temples, masjids, churches, gurudwaras, synagogues, ashrams, khanqahs stupas adding to the different types of tangible elements in the society. Human beings operate through the instruments of labor creating tangible elements. The social necessities provide techniques of modification to obtain freedom from natural compulsions. The methods and techniques of adjustments and modifications introduce diversity at the local, regional and nations levels. It is also true that human beings do not live by bread alone. They do require the food, shelter and clothing providing diversity in food habit shelters and dress. Besides, they also want to attend to their higher needs of understanding the philosophy and secrets of life. They also want to express themselves but the medium available to them is language which is incomplete medium of expression. All the feelings and emotions cannot be expressed through language. Hence, they have developed other forms of expression such as music, dance, painting, poetry, faiths, festivals, celebrations on different occasions adding color. All these represent the non- tangible, (non-material) elements of culture. Cultural diversity adds vigor to social life and needs to be celebrated.

De I., Patel I.

The extensive research on waste management has primarily remained confined to metro cities and focused on economic and environmental issues. The present study explores waste management in smaller urban areas from an institutional standpoint, mapping formal and informal players onto a two-dimensional framework: institutional type and institutional strength. The analysis is based on data accumulated through in-depth interviews and focus group discussions in three towns of India. Despite the absence of formal acknowledgment, it establishes a continuum between formal and informal actors whose efforts to collect waste and provide public goods and services are mutually supportive. Although the informal sector is ranked lower, there is little variation in institutional strength between the formal and informal sectors. A formal-informal hierarchy hinders informal waste collectors from moving up the value chain. The paper argues against separating the formal and informal actors in urban policy and planning. A waste management system that is formally integrated is required to extract greater economic value from waste and to strengthen the informal-formal continuum. This should enhance both the wages and working conditions of waste workers.