Lessons from Examining Same-Sex Intimate Partner Violence

Mock S.E., Eibach R.P.

We examined reports of sexual orientation identity stability and change over a 10-year period drawing on data from the National Survey of Midlife Development in the United States (MIDUS I and II) and tested for three patterns: (1) heterosexual stability, (2) female sexual fluidity, and (3) bisexual fluidity. Fifty-four percent of the 2,560 participants were female and the average age was approximately 47 years. At Wave 1, 2,494 (97.42%) reported a heterosexual identity, 32 (1.25%) a homosexual identity, and 34 (1.33%) a bisexual identity and somewhat more than 2% reported a different sexual orientation identity at Wave 2. Although some support for each hypothesis was found, initial sexual orientation identity interacted with gender to predict a more complex pattern. For the sample as a whole, heterosexuality was the most stable identity. For women, bisexuality and homosexuality were equally unstable and significantly less stable than heterosexuality, suggesting that sexual orientation identity fluidity is a pattern that applies more to sexual minority women than heterosexual women. For men, heterosexuality and homosexuality were both relatively stable compared to bisexuality, which stood out as a particularly unstable identity. This pattern of results was consistent with previous findings and helps to address methodological limitations of earlier research by showing the characteristics of a population-based sample of heterosexual, homosexual, and bisexual identified men and women over time.

Klostermann K., Kelley M.L., Milletich R.J., Mignone T.

The link between alcoholism and intimate partner violence (IPV) among heterosexual couples has received a great deal of attention in both the scientific and lay press. However, relative to heterosexual couples, IPV among alcohol-disordered homosexual couples has been grossly understudied. Despite the limited knowledge based on this topic, previous studies suggest that homosexual couples may experience more problematic drinking behaviors, higher rates of IPV, and in general, display more negative factors associated with treatment-seeking behaviors than heterosexual couples. In addition, because the study of alcoholism and IPV among homosexuals is a relatively new phenomenon, research on alcohol use patterns, dyadic adjustment, and partner violence is greatly lacking. Thus, the purpose of this review is to describe the prevalence of these comorbid conditions among lesbian and gay couples, discuss the link between alcohol misuse and partner violence in this population, identify factors that may reduce treatment-seeking behavior among same sex couples, and describe possible treatment approaches.

Messinger A.M.

With intimate partner violence (IPV) among same-sex couples largely ignored by policy makers and researchers alike, accurately estimating the size of the problem is important in determining whether this minimal response is justified. As such, the present study is a secondary data analysis of the National Violence Against Women Survey and represents the first multiple variable regression analysis of U.S. adult same-sex IPV prevalence using a nationally representative sample ( N = 14,182). Logistic regressions indicate that, independent of sex, respondents with a history of same-sex relationships are more likely to experience verbal, controlling, physical, and sexual IPV. Behaviorally “bisexual” respondents experience the highest IPV rates and are most likely to be victimized by an opposite-sex partner. Implications for future IPV research regarding sexual orientation and gender are discussed.

Kay M., Jeffries S.

Few studies have explored the problem of male same-sex intimate partner violence, especially in the context of Australia. Utilizing in-depth interviews with gay-friendly service providers in Brisbane, the research presented in this article sought to ascertain whether (a) intimate partner violence occurs in male same-sex intimate relationships, (b) if so, what form this violence takes, (c) what contextual triggers underpin this violence, (d) what barriers victims face in exiting abusive relationships and seeking support, and (e) what services are available and appropriate to the needs of men in violent intimate relationships with other men. Results suggest that the prevalence, types and contextual triggers of violence in male same-sex relationships parallel abuse in opposite-sex relationships. Heteronormativism, homophobia, and its close association with hegemonic masculinity, however, emerge as features unique to the male same-sex intimate partner violence experience.

Hamby S., Jackson A.

Previous research has shown that people perceive intimate partner violence (IPV) as more serious in cases involving a male perpetrator and female victim versus other gender combinations. This study is the first to explore reasons for these differences. 181 undergraduates at a U.S. southeastern college rated one of four dating violence vignettes that varied by perpetrator and victim gender. Participants viewed male-on-female violence as more frightening primarily because males are stronger and bigger than female perpetrators. Physical differences were rated as significantly more important causes of fear than other personality/relationship dynamics. Because males are actually stronger and bigger than females, it appears that gendered perceptions of violence are based in real-world knowledge of gender differences, not merely gender stereotypes.

Straus M.A.

The first part of this article summarizes results from more than 200 studies that have found gender symmetry in perpetration and in risk factors and motives for physical violence in martial and dating relationships. It also summarizes research that has found that most partner violence is mutual and that self-defense explains only a small percentage of partner violence by either men or women. The second part of the article documents seven methods that have been used to deny, conceal, and distort the evidence on gender symmetry. The third part of the article suggests explanations for the denial of an overwhelming body of evidence by reputable scholars. The concluding section argues that ignoring the overwhelming evidence of gender symmetry has crippled prevention and treatment programs. It suggests ways in which prevention and treatment efforts might be improved by changing ideologically based programs to programs based on the evidence from the past 30 years of research.

McDevitt-Murphy M.E., Murphy J.G., Monahan C.J., Flood A.M., Weathers F.W.

OBJECTIVES: This study investigated the relations between post-trauma psychopathology and substance abuse in a sample of trauma-exposed college students (n = 136) assigned to four groups based on primary diagnosis: posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, social phobia, or well-adjusted (participants who had low levels of distress). Groups were compared on a series of dimensions of substance use/abuse. RESULTS: Participants in the PTSD group evidenced greater substance use and abuse than those in the social phobia and well-adjusted groups on several dimensions and greater alcohol consumption than the depressed group. Correlation analyses suggested that most dimensions of substance abuse were related more strongly to avoidance and numbing (cluster C) symptoms than to reexperiencing and hyperarousal. CONCLUSIONS: The present findings suggest that trauma-related psychopathology may be associated with a more hazardous pattern of substance use than depression and social phobia.

Berghe W.V., Dewaele A., Cox N., Vincke J.

This study discusses the impact of stress specific to being lesbian, gay, or bisexual (LGB)-measured by means of the concepts of stigma consciousness and internalized homonegativity-on the mental well-being of LGB youth. Also, the effects of positive and negative social support were considered within the model. The sample consisted of 743 LGBs less than 26 years old who were recruited during the online ZZZIP survey in Flanders, Belgium. Hierarchical regression shows that LGB-specific unsupportive social interactions have the greatest direct effect on mental well-being of LGB youth, followed respectively by stigma consciousness, internalized homonegativity, and confidant support.

Duke A., Davidson M.M.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is pervasive and crosses all boundaries of sexual orientation, race, and class. Scholars contend that the intimidation of another person through abusive acts and words is not a gender issue. Organizations seeking to offer equitable services to survivors of IPV must intentionally establish themselves as inclusive agencies. This article presents a review of common societal myths and barriers to help-seeking for survivors of same-sex partner violence and offers program guidelines for lesbian, gay, and bisexual affirmative outreach services and advocate training.

Hamby S.

The debate on gender continues to define much scholarship on partner violence. No other single issue is as important to identifying one's theoretical and political position among those who are concerned about intimate partner violence (IPV). At this point in time, several well-documented conclusions can be drawn. First, two common estimates--under 10% female-perpetrated and 50% or more female-perpetrated--are quite discrepant from virtually all other data on physical violence. Second, several key definitional and measurement issues explain a large part of this discrepancy. Third, a number of commonly mentioned possibilities for measurement artifacts are unlikely sources of the gender parity found in many studies of IPV. This article will review each of these issues and suggest a third approach, the moderate asymmetry approach. The moderate asymmetry hypothesis for IPV is currently best-supported by the data, and it should be emphasized until a better alternative is found.

Moradi B., Mohr J.J., Worthington R.L., Fassinger R.E.

This lead article of the special issue discusses conceptual and methodological considerations in studying sexual minority issues, particularly in research conducted by counseling psychologists (including the work represented in this special issue). First, the overarching challenge of conceptualizing and defining sexual minority populations is described. Second, the importance and value of scholarship about sexual minority issues are highlighted. Third, challenges in sexual minority research are outlined, using the articles in this special issue for illustrative purposes, and suggestions are offered for consideration in future research. Finally, the article concludes with a discussion of the ways in which counseling psychologists are uniquely positioned to advance knowledge, practice, and social justice through research on sexual minority issues.

Greenwood G.L., Relf M.V., Huang B., Pollack L.M., Canchola J.A., Catania J.A.

Objectives. This study measured the prevalence of battering victimization (i.e., experience of psychological/symbolic, physical, and sexual battering) among men who have sex with men (MSM) and identified characteristics of these men. Methods. A probability-based sample of 2881 MSM living in 4 cities completed telephone interviews between 1996 and 1998. Results. Prevalence estimates were 34% for psychological/symbolic battering, 22% for physical battering, and 5% for sexual battering. The strongest demographic correlate independently associated with all forms of battering was age 40 or younger, whereas education and HIV serostatus were associated with physical and psychological/symbolic violence. Conclusions. Rates of battering victimization among urban MSM are substantially higher than among heterosexual men and possibly heterosexual women. Public health efforts directed toward addressing intimate partner battering among these men are needed.

Bartholomew K., Regan K.V., White M.A., Oram D.

Previous studies of abuse in male same-sex relationships have been limited by convenience samples and/or by incomplete assessments of partner abuse. We examined patterns of same-sex partner abuse in a random sample of 284 gay and bisexual men. Respondents reported on perpetration and receipt of physical, psychological, and sexual abuse over multiple time frames, as well as injuries resulting from abuse. Almost all respondents reported psychological abuse, more than one-third reported physical abuse, and 10% reported having engaged in unwanted sexual activity because of partner force or threats of force. More than half of recipients of partner violence reported sustaining injury. We found strong associations between different forms of abuse, and between severity of abuse receipt and perpetration.

Eaton L., Kaufman M., Fuhrel A., Cain D., Cherry C., Pope H., Kalichman S.C.

Interpersonal violence within lesbian relationships is a significant yet understudied problem. Women attending a gay pride festival in Atlanta, GA, were asked to complete a survey concerning same-sex interpersonal violence. Women who reported being in a current or previous same-sex partner relationship were included in the analyses (N = 226). Factors that occurred in the context of interpersonal violence were investigated: substance use, HIV/STI risk behaviors, barriers to reporting abuse, and attitudes inhibiting seeking of social support. In addition, the survey assessed relationship-related power dynamics. Results of multivariate analyses support the hypotheses that power imbalance and inequality when making sex-related decisions within women’s same-sex relationships are associated with interpersonal violence. Further findings suggested that a combination of factors must be considered when dealing with and reducing the risk for violence in same-sex relationships.

Graham-Kevan N., Archer J.

Using data obtained from women’s shelter residents, male and female students, and male prisoners, this study investigated the association between non-violent controlling behaviors, physical aggression, and violence towards a spouse (N = 264). It was predicted that only men and women involved in intimate terrorism (Johnson, Violence Against Women, 11(12):1003–1018, 2006) would use controlling aggression, and that physical aggression used by those involved in situational couple violence would be unrelated to controlling behavior. Contrary to predictions derived from Johnson’s theory, regression analysis showed that control accounted significant proportions of the variance in the use of physical aggression for all three relationship categories. Some support was provided, however, as it was found that the pattern of both interrelationships of the five types of controlling behaviors, and control and physical aggression, supported Johnson’s distinction.

Mahlangu P., Brooke-Sumner C., Sikweyiya Y., Dunkle K., Mabena N., Jewkes R., Duma S., Khuzwayo N., Dartnall E., Pillay M., Machisa M.T.

Edwards C., Allan R., Taylor S., Graves C.

Alfandari R., Taylor B.J., Scott R.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a widespread social, public health, and human rights problem. Empirical investigation of IPV risk factors can promote evidence-based assessment tools and effective prevention and intervention. This overview is a pioneering synthesis of systematic reviews (SRs) of IPV risk factors. Systematic searches for SRs in English reporting a meta-analysis of IPV risk factors in adult heterosexual, non-casual relationships published between January 2011 and June 2021 were conducted in four bibliographic databases: Medline via EBSCO, CINAHL Plus, Scopus, and APA PsycInfo. This search strategy identified 1,027 unique records. Supplementary manual search methods were completed in July 2023. Overall, 17 SRs utilizing a meta-analytic approach to investigate IPV risk factors published between 2012 and 2022 were included in the overview. Risk factors were organized into five key categories: demographic, individual, family of origin, relationship, and social. Overall, 73 unique risk factors relating to perpetrators and 61 relating to victims were identified in the SRs. Just 50 of the 119 coefficients relating to IPV perpetration were reported, by any SR, as statistically significant and of moderate or strong predictive power; and 39 of these 50 factors related to previous IPV. Only 26 of the 147 coefficients relating to IPV victimization were both statistically significant and of moderate or strong predictive power, the majority of which (15) were in the relationship violence grouping of risk factors. The evidence suggests a randomness to IPV. This body of evidence provides some limited direction for policymakers, practitioners, and researchers.

Worrell S., Bourne A.

Community-controlled organisations provide crucial services to support the health and wellbeing of lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans and gender diverse, intersex, queer and other sexual and/or gender minority (LGBTIQ +) people. A strength of such organisations and their practitioners (many of whom are LGBTIQ +) is their cultural expertise, which can help to identify, understand and address the specific needs of LGBTIQ + clients, including in relation to family violence. While much discussion about standards of care for LGBTIQ + people has focused on a need for mainstream service providers and their non-LGBTIQ + practitioners to become more “culturally competent”, less has considered how clients experience services at community-controlled organisations. In this article, we draw on 19 semi-structured interviews with clients of family violence services at an LGBTIQ + community-controlled organisation in Melbourne, Australia, to explore their perceptions of specialist LGBTIQ + services. Eleven participants were cisgender men, six were cisgender women and two were trans or gender diverse. In terms of sexual orientation, ten self-described as gay, one homosexual, two queer, three lesbian, one bisexual, one asexual and one preferred not to say. Thematic analysis was used to identify patterns of service experience. Our research shows that participants felt that specialist services were most effective when they were informed about, affirming of and focused on the identities and specific health needs of LGBTIQ + clients. Participants had experienced what they perceived to be effective services within the context of LGBTIQ + community-controlled organisations, though felt that “mainstream” service providers were also potentially capable of providing good-quality support. A concerted effort on the part of these providers to embed culturally competent and LGBTIQ + -friendly practices into their services would help them achieve this outcome. Specialist support was most visible in the context of LGBTIQ + community-controlled organisations but also possible in other health and wellbeing settings, which is promising for mainstream service providers and practitioners seeking to provide more inclusive care for LGBTIQ + people. The insight of clients in this research is something that can potentially contribute to further discussion about the continued work both of LGBTIQ + community-controlled organisations and mainstream services.

Yan E., Lo I.P., Sun R., Chan A.S., Ng H.K., Wu A.

Muñoz-Fernández N., Sánchez-Jiménez V.

Belton J., Awrey M.J., Sheinin G.D., Langton C.M.

The present study aimed to investigate the impact of gender, sexual orientation, and mental health labels on mock jurors’ verdicts and perceptions in a case of intimate partner violence (IPV). It was hypothesized that: (1) defendants with a mental health label would receive more guilty verdicts and be perceived as more guilty and less credible than those with no label, (2) male defendants would receive more guilty verdicts and be perceived as more guilty than females, and (3) heterosexual defendants would receive more guilty verdicts and be perceived as more guilty than homosexual defendants. A sample of 314 undergraduate participants responded to a court case summary in which defendant mental health label (psychopathic traits, antisocial personality disorder [ASPD], or no label), defendant and victim gender (male or female), and sexual orientation (heterosexual or homosexual) were systematically varied. Defendants with mental health labels (psychopathy or ASPD) were more likely to receive a guilty verdict and were perceived as more guilty and less credible than those with no label. Male defendants were perceived as more guilty than female defendants. Heterosexual male defendants with female victims were seen as more guilty than heterosexual couples with a female defendant or either same-sex pairing. These findings suggest gender-based biases and a general labeling bias in perceptions of IPV.

D’Cruz C.R., Hammond M.D., Dixon L.

People in the LGBTQIA+ community (i.e., lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, intersex, asexual, and other gender/sexual minorities) experience greater rates of intimate partner aggression (IPA) than the general population and have fewer help-seeking pathways available. The current research examined the extent to which LGBTQIA+ people’s perceptions of barriers to help-seeking were associated with perceptions of societal heteronormativity—the belief that being cisgender and heterosexual is the norm—and whether the source of support was formal (e.g., police, counselors) versus informal (e.g., friends, family). The current research was conducted in two parts. In the first part of the study (Study 1a), structural equation modeling indicated a significant positive association between perceived societal heteronormativity and self-focused barriers (e.g., feeling too ashamed or guilty to seek help) but not with other-focused barriers (e.g., expecting unfair treatment). Instead, LGBTQIA+ people perceived greater other-focused barriers when considering formal compared to informal sources of support. In the second part of the study (Study 1b), we interviewed 10 LGBTQIA+ people about barriers to help-seeking for IPA. A reflexive thematic analysis identified four themes: (1) Who can hold the status of being a “victim”?; (2) The heightened importance of autonomy; (3) Formal supports need LGBTQIA+ competency; and (4) Judged by the outside in. The themes illustrated unique barriers experienced by LGBTQIA+ people when judging possible harm, choosing whether to seek help, and actual help-seeking. Altogether, current help-seeking pathways for IPA are generally inaccessible to people in the LGBTQIA+ community. IPA interventions for the LGBTQIA+ community require awareness of stigma, improved education for informal and formal support pathways, and the development of community-led interventions.

Pless J., Gibbs J.J.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a pervasive issue among men who have sex with men (MSM). However, IPV has long been conceptualized as abuse between a male perpetrator and a female victim, leaving gaps in the literature on the unique impacts IPV victimization has for both male victims and victims in same-sex relationships. This study examines relationships between IPV and negative minority stress experiences specific to LGBTQ individuals: overt experiences of homophobia, sexual orientation microaggressions, and internalized homophobia. Participants ( N = 168) were recruited through three popular MSM networking applications (i.e., Grindr, Jack’d, and Scruff. Most were recruited from one state in the southeastern United States. Ordinary Least Squares regressions were used to examine IPV as a predictive factor in three separate models, all of which controlled for age, race, outness, and gay community connection (GCC). IPV victimization is associated with increased levels of experiences of overt homophobia, homophobic microaggressions, and internalized homophobia for MSM. Outness, or being open with the people in one’s life about one’s MSM identity, is associated with lower levels of both sexual orientation microaggressions and internalized homophobia. GCC is also associated with lower levels of internalized homophobia. Results from this study show that IPV victimization is related to minority stressors for MSM. These findings support the existence of unique elements of IPV for LGBTQ victims, specifically MSM. Implications for IPV researchers and service providers are discussed, including the importance of the protective role of outness and GCC against some minority stressors.

Hine B.A., Hoppe I., Russell B.

In recent years, there has been growing acknowledgement of so-called hidden survivors of domestic and sexual violence, specifically those that fall outside of stereotypical conceptualisations of prototypical victims (i.e., cis-gendered, heterosexual women). As a result of this recognition, research on the experiences of LGBT survivors has flourished. This chapter seeks to bring together a contemporaneous understanding of the experiences of LGBT survivors of domestic and sexual violence, including on (a) the prevalence of violence in this community, (b) their experiences of violence, (c) the impact violence has upon them in relation to both mental health and physical health, and other psychological and social factors, and (d) their experiences of help-seeking (and barriers to this), including within the criminal justice system. Finally, the authors will provide key recommendations for practice and future research, so that academics, practitioners, and policymakers can better support this population.

Okenwa Emegwa L., Paillard-Borg S., Wallin Lundell I., Stålberg A., Åling M., Ahlenius G., Eriksson H.

The role of nurses in identifying and responding to family violence and violence against women has long been established. However, nurses’ readiness to fully assume this role remains low due to various barriers and the sensitive nature of the subject. As part of capacity building to address this problem, an additional national qualitative learning target, i.e., to “show knowledge about men’s violence against women and violence in close relationships”, was introduced into the Swedish Higher Education Ordinance for nursing and seven other educational programs between 2017 and 2018. The aim of this paper is to describe how the national qualitative learning target is incorporated into the undergraduate nursing curriculum at the Swedish Red Cross University College. An overview of relevant teaching and learning activities and how they are organized is first presented, followed by the presentation of a proposed didactic model: Dare to Ask and Act! The model details a step-by-step progression from facts and figures, including the role of gender norms, to recognizing signs of abuse in complex clinical situations, as well as developing skills that enhance the courage to ask and act. Due to the sensitive nature of violence victimization, the proposed model reflects the importance of making the subject a reoccurring theme in undergraduate nursing education in order to boost nursing students’ interests and confidence to “Dare to Ask and Act!”. The model also shows that making the subject a recurring theme can be achieved with minimal disruptions to and without overcrowding an existing curriculum.

Campbell K.M., Berg M.T.

This study examines how sexuality, gender, and severity affect the willingness of third parties to mobilize facets of the criminal justice system in response to witnessing intimate partner violence (IPV). An M-Turk online sample of 803 adults in the USA completed a factorial vignette survey. Participants were presented with an incident of intimate partner violence and asked to report how likely they would be to notify police and select jail as punishment for the perpetrator. Results of the study uncover no clear evidence of heteronormative bias. Rather, female victims of IPV garner the most support from third parties. Furthermore, respondents were more likely to favor a jail sentence for male perpetrators. Patterns were amplified in severe incidents. The current study suggests that gender and violence severity, rather than sexuality, are the most salient predictors of the third-party’s decision to notify the police and prefer strong criminal justice punishments.

Paintsil I.K.

Historically, same-sex intimate partner violence (IPV) was ignored, and victims often experienced high rates of harassment and intimidation from police, leading to low reporting of same-sex IPV incidents, victims’ unwillingness to cooperate with the police, and common arrests in such incidents. Although the Supreme Court’s decision in Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) legalized and legitimized same-sex marriages and relationships in the U.S., mandating the inclusion of same-sex partners in protective order laws and yielding collateral benefits for victims of same-sex IPV, it is unclear if the decision has had a positive effect on same-sex IPV clearance rates. This study uses National Incident-Based Reporting System data to compare IPV clearance (arrest, dual arrest, victim noncooperation, and prosecution declined) pre (2013/2014) and post (2016/2017) Obergefell v. Hodges (2015). Regression results show no substantial changes in same-sex IPV clearance after Obergefell v. Hodges (2015). Compared to opposite-sex IPV, same-sex IPV was less likely to be cleared by arrest but much more likely to be cleared by dual arrest, victim noncooperation, and prosecution declined. Same-sex IPV involving Black couples and married partners were also less likely to be cleared by arrest but more likely to be cleared by dual arrest than Black/White same-sex IPV and incidents involving unmarried partners, respectively. Moreover, same-sex IPV victims experience unfavorable criminal justice outcomes in states with mandatory arrest policies but fare better in states that supported same-sex relationships prior to Obergefell. The implications of these findings for practice and research are discussed.

Cannon C.E., Buttell F.

This chapter explores the ongoing debate between the gendered paradigm and the family violence paradigm in explaining the etiology of intimate partner violence (IPV). The gendered paradigm of IPV typically argues that violence occurs as an expression of power and control to exert patriarchal norms that clearly delineates an aggressor (man) and victim (woman) binary. The family violence paradigm advances social learning models as necessary to understanding the development of IPV, not as an expression of patriarchy, but from how behavior and the relationship to feelings are learned. Given that research has pointed toward comparable rates of IPV occurring across gender and sexual identity, a new theoretical model is needed to better understand how and why people use violence in navigating their intimate relationships. Building on these approaches, we introduce a novel paradigm rooted in queer theory to improve our understanding of who, how, and why people from diverse sexuality and gender backgrounds engage in IPV. This queer paradigm of IPV deconstructs the aggressor –>victim binary presented in the gendered paradigm to reveal the ways in which individuals can draw on their own agency to redraw their relationships with emotions to reduce instances of IPV.

Cox J., MacNeil E., Stewart H.

Although historically conceptualized as a “gendered” crime with men as the abusers and women as the abused, the number of women arrested for intimate partner violence (IPV) has risen sharply in recent decades. This chapter reviews criminal legal policies regarding IPV, with a focus on how these policies impact women offenders. We provide a historical overview of the criminal legal responses to IPV including policy changes over time. We then review research regarding law enforcement, prosecutorial, and judicial responses to IPV, with a particular focus on the differential impact of specific policies (e.g., mandatory arrest) on women offenders. Finally, we highlight gaps in the current knowledge and offer suggestions for future research to inform policy reform.