Workplace frustration leading to task deviation and accidents at sea – A sociocultural perspective on the maritime human element

Rajapakse A., Emad G.R.

Fatigue is long known to be a significant factor contributing to maritime accidents. Despite international efforts to curb this element through introducing advanced technology, preventative regulations, and education and training of seafarers, fatigue continues to make headlines in marine investigation reports. This article aims to identify why fatigue occurs at sea and what motivates seafarers to work under the influence of fatigue onboard commercial ships. This qualitative research utilised one-on-one interviews with seafarers involved in maritime mishaps to capture reliable perspectives of leading factors contributing to sea fatigue. Our analysis shows that insufficient manning, job insecurity, and inadequate regulations are the major factors that lead to seafarers’ fatigue. Further, this research reveals that the recent technological advancements in the shipping industry are an underlying contributing factor to fatigue during work and rest hours.

Ma X.F., Shi G.Y., Liu Z.J.

Human-related issues have become a popular topic in maritime safety research, with an increasing number of relevant research articles being published annually. However, a persistent problem in this field is that three terms, namely “human element”, “human factor”, and “human error” are used interchangeably in the literature. This issue poses questions regarding the characteristics of their usage; do these three terms have the same meaning? Herein, we conducted systematic research on the three terms by analyzing official information and published research using a collecting–classifying–summarizing policy. The results show that “human error” is easier to identify than “human element” and “human factor”, while the latter two terms have intersecting contents. These contents prompt the user to decide which term to choose depending on the situation. Herein, we aim to help scholars accurately distinguish these terms.

Rajapakse A., Emad G.R., Lützhöft M., Grech M.

Analyses of accident investigation reports show that attempting to simultaneously perform tasks onboard ships to manage workload has led to many accidents at sea. These accident reports point out that seafarers fail to follow procedures as expected by shipping companies when conducting tasks simultaneously. Only a handful of studies that examined such discrepancies between work as imagined by shipping companies and work as actually done by seafarers exist. This study aims to examine why seafarers engage in simultaneous tasks, which may lead to accidents. In an exploratory qualitative study, face-to-face interviews were conducted with selective and targeted seafarers previously involved in maritime accidents. The collected data were analysed using interpretive and descriptive qualitative methods with a socio-cultural approach. The findings of this study show that the substantial regulatory changes over the years in the maritime industry have resulted in increased occupational workload for seafarers. Some of these regulatory barriers designed to improve safety at sea prompted seafarers to engage in simultaneous tasks to perform excessive paperwork and compensate for insufficient crewing. The research also revealed how a poor speak-up culture onboard might encourage simultaneous tasks leading to accidents at sea. The analysis shows that reasons for engaging in simultaneous tasks at sea are varied and complex. Therefore, complex intervention efforts to discourage seafarers from engaging in simultaneous tasks is needed to mitigate accidents at sea.

Hollnagel E.

Task analysis (TA) has been one of the primary tools of human factors from the very beginning. This chapter begins by defining TA as the study of who should do what, why it is necessary and finally how and when it should be done. The demand for TA only arose when the use of technology became more pronounced or even indispensable, especially when tools changed from being simple to being complex. All TA methods make use of the principle of decomposition, of breaking something into its constituent parts, to reason about activities and how they are related and organized. There are two fundamentally different approaches to TA and task description. They are structural tasks and functional tasks. The main development is the use of functional rather than structural analyses to account for the dynamic couplings among the functions (or tasks) necessary to accomplish an activity.

Rajapakse A., Emad G.R.

One of the primary human elements attributed to mishaps at sea is task deviation. Task deviation occurs when a seafarer’s execution of a task is different from what is outlined in the standard procedure provided by the shipping company. It is essential to understand what causes seafarers to deviate from their standard procedures to minimise task deviations at sea, leading to dangerous situations. This research paper raises findings from a study that qualitatively examines why in the maritime industry, work as imagined is different from work as done. It presents six factors that cause task deviation leading to dangerous situations at sea as outcomes. ● Task deviations by seafarers may lead to dangerous situations at sea due to discrepancies between Work-as-Imagined and Work-as-Done. ● Accidents at sea take place due to six underlying factors causing task deviation. ● Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) which is a theoretical framework applied in the analysis of human behaviour is used in this study. ● Contemporary accident investigation methods do not sufficiently identify broader systemic issues in accident aetiology. ● 'Task deviation due to human element model' depicts possible causation of accidents due to task deviation leading to dangerous situations.

Wang X., Yuen K.F., Shi W., Ma F.

Public transport plays a crucial role in the movement of people. With the growing demand for public transport, the safety of public transport becomes a pertinent issue. Although collisions caused by drivers have been extensively investigated, passengers' safety behaviour is largely ignored. This study examines the determinants of passengers' safety behaviour on public transport. This study integrates Health Belief Model and Awareness-Interest-Desire-Action Model into theory of planned behaviour to examine the determinants of passengers’ safety behaviour on public transport. Survey data are collected from 342 passengers in Dalian, China, and structural equation modelling is employed for data analysis. Results reveal that passengers' safety behaviour is positively influenced by their safety awareness, which is further determined by their attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control. Furthermore, the relationship between safety awareness and safety behaviour is partially mediated by passengers' perceived threat (severity and susceptibility) of risky behaviour. Regarding the total effects, safety awareness is the strongest predictor of passengers' safety behaviour, followed by perceived behavioural control, perceived severity, perceived susceptibility, attitude and subjective norms. By promoting passengers' safety behaviour, our research creates implications on safety education and communication to enhance road safety. Practical insights are discussed in relation to the transport planners and regulators, and general public. • This study focuses on passengers' safety behaviour (PSB) on public transport. • Health Belief Model (HBM) and Awareness-Interest-Desire-Action Model are integrated into theory of planned behaviour (TPB). • Safety awareness is the strongest factor leading to PSB. • The relationship between safety awareness and PSB is partially mediated by HBM factors (severity and susceptibility of risky behaviour). • Safety awareness is further determined by TPB factors.

Fenneman J., Frankenhuis W.E.

Evolutionary social scientists have argued that impulsive behavior is adaptive in harsh and unpredictable conditions. Is this true? This paper presents a mathematical model that computes the optimal level of impulsivity in environments varying in harshness and unpredictability. We focus on information impulsivity, i.e., choosing to act without gathering or considering information about the consequences of one's actions. We explore two notions of harshness: the mean level of resources (e.g., food) and the mean level of extrinsic events (e.g., being the victim of a random attack). We explore three notions of unpredictability: variation in resources, variation in extrinsic events, and the interruption risk (the chance that a resource becomes unavailable). We also explore interactions between harshness and unpredictability. Our general model suggests four broad conclusions. First, impulsive behavior is not always adaptive in harsh and unpredictable conditions; rather, this depends on the exact definitions of harshness, unpredictability, and impulsivity. Second, impulsive behavior may be adaptive in environments in which the quality of resources is low or high, but is less likely to be adaptive when their quality is moderate. Third, impulsive behavior may be adaptive when resource encounters are likely to be interrupted. Fourth, extrinsic events have only a limited effect on whether impulsive behavior is adaptive. We discuss the implications of these findings for future research, consider limitations, and suggest future directions.

Nadrian H., Taghdisi M.H., Pouyesh K., Khazaee-Pool M., Babazadeh T.

Introduction Traffic and transportation are important determinants in the spectrum of social, economic and environmental factors outside the health sector which has been known to impact public health. The aim of this study was to explore the perceptions of inhabitants and key informants on the impacts of Sanandaj urban traffic jam (UTJ) on family mental health. Methods It was a qualitative study with semi-structured interviews. Applying purposeful sampling, 30 residents/key informants were invited to participate in the study. Data collection was conducted through 4 Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) with 22 residents and in-depth interviews with 8 key informants. To conduct analysis, interpretative thematic analysis was used. MAXQDA10 was applied for the purpose of data management. Results Based on the participants’ perceptions, Sanandaj urban traffic jam had a wide range of impacts on family mental health, and, consequently, “life quality is diminished”. Depending on the issue participants were reffering to, the health impacts were grouped into two main themes: (i) impacts on families in general population, including “trigerring stress and anxiety”, “reducing tolerance threshold”, “trigerring family quarrel/squabble”, “regreting at traffic accidents” and “annoying about and bored with air/noise pollution”; and (ii) impacts on the families of inner-city drivers, including “lack of family cohesion”, “dissatisfaction within family”, “disturbance in family progression”, and “frowning in concentration”. Conclusion The UTJ in Sanandaj has led to diminished mental health and weakend life quality among families of both general population and inner-city drivers. Our results may help public health practitioners and urban traffic and transportation (UTT) stakeholders in finding a better understanding on potential health impacts of UTJs. In developing countries, like Iran, there is great need to health-oriented policymaking while developing UTT plans and projects.

Valdez Banda O.A., Goerlandt F., Salokannel J., van Gelder P.H.

A safety management system (SMS) is the common means used by organizations to assess organizational performance with respect to the safety and well-being of people, property and the natural ecosystem. A SMS provides confidence to diverse stakeholders that organizational safety is at an appropriate level and fulfils the applicable regulatory standards. As a multifaceted system for organizational safety assessment, ensurance and assurance, the evaluation of the design and operational use of SMS is a complex process. An evaluation needs to provide evidence about how well the design and operation of an SMS complies with applicable standards and how well the methods used in the SMS implementation support the organizational policies and practical work. In the maritime domain, SMS is broadly applied. However, there are few theoretically rooted SMS design approaches, and there is a lack of frameworks to evaluate how well the SMS is designed and how effectively it operates. This paper proposes an initial evaluation framework for the design and operational use of a maritime SMS design approach based on Systems-Theoretic Accident Model and Processes (STAMP), realist evaluation and Bayesian Networks. This framework is applied for a case study of vessel traffic services (VTS) Finland to test its relevance and ability to guide the SMS design. The experiences gained in the case study, and the related discussion on the framework, can guide further research in this area. Ultimately, the work can be used as a basis for developing maritime SMS auditing processes, based on specific theoretical and methodological approaches.

Galieriková A.

Studies of maritime accidents identify human error as the primary contributing cause for up to 70% of the accidents. By investigating incidents, safety problems can be identified, and preventive measures may be taken. This paper deals with incorporate human factors into an accident investigation program. In order to provide an examples of a human factors taxonomy for the purpose of investigation, the Human Factor Analysis and Classification System (HFACS), was used. The fundamental issue of the HFACS system is the proper categorisation of the causal factors in one of nineteen sections, known as “coding process”. In this paper, the recommendations for the proper classification of causal factors, focused on marine transport, will be provided.

Braun V., Clarke V.

Since initially writing on thematic analysis in 2006, the popularity of the method we outlined has exploded, the variety of TA approaches have expanded, and, not least, our thinking has developed a...

Konkor I., Kansanga M., Sano Y., Atuoye K., Luginaah I.

Introduction Road traffic collisions kill more than many diseases in Sub-Saharan Africa with the youth, particularly those between 15–29 years, being the most vulnerable group due to their risk-taking behaviours. In Ghana, about six people die daily from road traffic collisions. This study examines the relationship between risky behaviours and time to first motorbike collision in northern Ghana with the aim of informing policy and contributing to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Methods We collected data from a representative sample of 818 respondents aged 18 years and older from three districts in the Upper West Region of Ghana. We fitted log-normal models to estimate time ratios and hazard graphs, which identified the most at risk group in timing to first collision. Results The results show that limited knowledge of speed limit (TR = 0.75, P Conclusion The implications of the study findings are that for Ghana to achieve target 3.6 of the SDGs, there is the need to intensify existing road safety campaigns on speed limits and alcohol abuse, while enforcing regulations against use of motorbike by unlicensed/under aged riders. It is also crucial to enforce helmet use, particularly among third party riders, who are often not the priority for road safety.

Rajapakse A., Emad G.R., Lützhöft M., Grech M.

The high frequency of maritime accidents and incidents occurring at sea has been a major challenge for the maritime industry in the last decades. The majority of these accidents are attributed to seafarers’ poor performance. This, despite the fact that the international maritime domain continues to adopt and update conventions regulating maritime safety to mitigate these accidents from occurring. In this paper, utilizing a qualitative research approach, we show through a socio-cultural contextual perspective that time constraints as a major influencing factor in causing task deviations at sea which leads to dangerous situations. We analyse how some of the present barriers in place to prevent accidents at sea are in effect prompt seafarers who are working under time pressure to deviate from their task. Moreover, the paper discusses the social constituents such as job insecurity and the seafarers’ viewpoint towards the ship operators’ commitment to safe ship operations are crucial in motivating seafarers’ deviating from the task at hand when faced with time pressure.

Teperi A., Lappalainen J., Puro V., Perttula P.

Implementing safety management (ISM Code) aims to promote a good safety culture in the maritime industry. However, although this has improved safety, it has also paradoxically increased bureaucracy and overlooked operative personnel. At the same time, safety science has undergone a paradigm shift from Safety-I, which is traditional and error based, to Safety-II, which focuses on the potential of the human element. To determine whether Safety-I is dominant in the prevailing culture, or whether any Safety-II ideas are emerging, we studied the current thinking and the prerequisites for improving maritime safety culture and safety management. We interviewed 17 operative employees and 12 safety and unit managers (n = 29), both individually and in groups, in eight Finnish maritime organisations representing the maritime system (shipping companies, authorities, vessel traffic service, association). We also analysed 21 inspection documents to capture practical safety defects. To the employees, safety culture meant openness and well-functioning, safe work. However, this was not always the case in practice. Safety management procedures were portrayed as mainly technical/authority focused, and as neglecting the human element, such as the participation of operative personnel in safety improvements. We also found several factors that support improving maritime safety culture. The ISM code seems to have supported traditional methods of safety management (Safety-I), but not the creation of a positive safety culture, which the Safety-II paradigm has highlighted. System-wide safety improvement, participation of the operative personnel and open sharing of safety data were the areas in need of development. These were already being created in and among maritime organisations. To improve maritime safety culture in a concrete way and to achieve Safety-II in practice, we need a new focus and competence. Policy, procedures, and practical tools and models should use the human element as potential.

Karakasnaki M., Vlachopoulos P., Pantouvakis A., Bouranta N.

Acknowledging that shipping safety continues to be a major topic of interest in the maritime community, the present study attempts to identify the critical factors of International Safety Management (ISM) Code implementation, to identify the dimensions that describe whether the ISM Code has fulfilled its intended purpose as well as to assess their interrelationships. Moreover, the present study aims to explore whether the fulfillment of the Code’s intended purpose is associated with accident reduction. Evidence was drawn from a sample of 63 masters and chief officers who have hands-on onboard experience on ISM Code implementation and data were analyzed through the use of Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), correlation analysis, and binomial logistic regression. Findings indicate that the critical factors of ISM Code implementation can be categorized in the crew-related and the company-related dimensions. Also, the fulfillment of the intended purpose of the ISM Code consists of the factors of safety management system efficiency and increased safety, which were also found to be significantly associated with the crew-related dimension of ISM Code implementation. Finally, results showed that both safety management system efficiency and increased safety increase the probability of accident reduction at the highest level.