Criticality assessment and material flow analysis of raw materials for power lithium-ion batteries in China: Towards sustainable supply and recycling

To ensure the sustainability of the power lithium-ion battery (PLIB) industry, assessing the criticality of raw materials (RMs) and cathode materials is crucial, as it evaluates their environmental and economic impact during supply disruptions. This work utilizes dynamic material flow analysis and an improved criticality matrix to assess the criticality of RMs and cathode materials under different scenarios. The results reveal that a considerable increase both in demand of Li, Ni, Co and Mn resources from 2015–2022, while the cumulative recycling volume of all materials remained small. When the collection framework for spent PLIBs is improved, the recycling of RMs in 2040 can achieve approximately 60% of the corresponding demand. The establishment of a sound waste management system and improvement on resource efficiency can minimize the criticality of ternary materials. This research highlights the need for enhanced recycling framework and strategic planning to ensure the sustainable supply of critical materials.