Latest Advances in the Scalable Synthesis of Graphene and Its Versatile Applications in Energy, Electronics, Composites, Biomedical, and Environmental Technologies

Graphene, with its atomically precise two-dimensional (2D) architecture, has emerged as a revolutionary material capable of driving breakthroughs across interdisciplinary fields. This review synthesizes cutting-edge advances in scalable synthesis strategies—such as ball milling, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), electrochemical exfoliation, liquid-phase exfoliation, reduction methods, and biomass-derived routes—alongside the multifunctional applications of graphene. The inherent merits of graphene, including unparalleled electrical conductivity, exceptional thermal management properties, and outstanding mechanical robustness, empower its dual functionality as both structural enhancers and active components. Key transformative application areas comprehensively covered include: advanced composites, significantly enhancing mechanical performance and enabling lightweight designs; energy technologies, facilitating high-performance storage systems, efficient conversion devices, and flexible power sources; flexible electronics, enabling innovative sensors and next-generation devices; biomedicine, advancing targeted drug delivery and sensitive diagnostic platforms; environmental remediation, effectively removing pollutants from water, air, and soil; electromagnetic shielding, providing efficient interference suppression; and smart fabrics, integrating sensing and energy functions. Despite significant progress, critical barriers persist, including challenges in achieving uniform large-scale production, establishing standardized biosafety evaluation frameworks, and implementing eco-conscious life cycle management. The analysis in this review ultimately proposes an integrated development roadmap that synergizes green synthesis protocols, intelligent heterostructure engineering, and cross-sector regulatory alignment to systematically bridge the translational gap between lab-scale breakthroughs and industrial implementation requirements. This positions graphene as a foundational enabling technology for next-generation sustainable solutions in energy conversion, personalized medicine, ecosystem restoration, and related fields.