Digital propaganda is not simply propaganda in digital garb: toward an expanded theory of propaganda

Drawing on a critical review of the existing literature on computational propaganda and disinformation, and employing a three-stage process—addressing the “New Wine in Old Bottles” problem, extracting foundational concepts, and constructing a four-pillar framework—this article proposes an expanded theory of propaganda. The theory posits that digital propaganda is shaped by four key dimensions: politico-economic, sociocultural, technological, and socio-psychological, further delineated by the forces of commodification, privatization, connectivity, and virality. Broadening the analytical scope, it encompasses intricate interactions among politics, content, actors, platforms, and goals, recognizing the dynamic complexities inherent in the digital landscape. Furthermore, it sheds light on how commercial interests impact the production and dissemination of propaganda, offering insights into the propagation of popular ideologies such as patriotism and populism. This advances the understanding of digital propaganda’s pervasive impact on political discourse and societal attitudes, encouraging broader global research beyond a focus on state actors.