Intimate Partner Violence in Same-Sex Relationships: Are We Aware of the Implications?

Mohammed Na'aim M.S., Rajamanickam R., Nordin R.

In Malaysia, matters pertaining to domestic violence are governed by the Domestic Violence Act 1994 (DVA 1994) (Act 521). The DVA 1994 uses the term “domestic violence†rather than “intimate partner violence†(IPV). Definition of domestic violence not only describe the types of domestic violence are, it also identifies the victims of domestic violence. Those who fall under the category of domestic violence victims may seek legal protection under the DVA 1994 namely protection orders, compensation and access to a rehabilitation programme. Unlike domestic violence, the term ‘IPV’ is not defined by the DVA 1994. This may raise a question regarding the status of IPV victims on whether they are protected under the said Act. The research examines the definitions of domestic violence and IPV, how the DVA 1994 protects domestic violence victims, and to what extent legal protection is given to IPV victims. This article adopts the doctrinal legal research involving a detailed analysis of the DVA 1994, the Penal Code (Act 574), the Criminal Procedure Code (Act 593) and case law. This research found that the definition of IPV within the DVA 1994 arguably cover only spouses and former spouses, leaving other unmentioned intimate relationships such as cohabitation and dating partner outside of the application of the Act. Although not covered by the DVA 1994, if individuals in such relationships are harmed by their partners, they can lodge a police report for violation of the criminal provisions of the Penal Code for legal action to be taken.

Santoniccolo F., Trombetta T., Rollè L.

Same-Sex Intimate Partner Violence (SSIPV) is a complex issue that can be severely damaging. When involved in SSIPV, victims and perpetrators sometimes choose to seek help. The help-seeking process, however, can be difficult. Experiences of help-seeking seem to vary and may be positive or negative depending on several factors, some of which appear to be specific to lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) people involved in a same-sex relationship. A systematic review of the literature has been conducted across four databases following the PRISMA statement guidelines. Out of 410 screened abstracts, 78 articles were selected for full-text review. Following the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 21 studies were included in the current review. Thematic analysis was conducted on these studies and results were discussed by three reviewers. Help-seekers tended to use informal sources of help, perceived to be ambivalently helpful. Formal sources tended to be utilized sparingly, except for counselors. Many formal sources were perceived to be unhelpful, and most of the studies identified several barriers to services that prevented effective help. Formal and helpful sources were perceived as knowledgeable and sensitive about LGB themes. While existing research is limited, formal services that can provide effective care for SSIPV appear scarce. Barriers to services seem widespread, limiting accessibility. Existing services would benefit from increasing their knowledge and sensitivity on SSIPV-specific themes. The development of policies, programs, and interventions that aim to provide effective help is needed, as well as more research.

Callan A., Corbally M., McElvaney R.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a global health issue that encroaches beyond parameters of age, gender, sexual orientation and is the subject of extensive scholarly inquiry. Research on IPV in heterosexual couples, in particular on heterosexual women, has been prolific. However, there is a dearth of literature to document the distinct experiences of gay and bisexual men, despite the evidence of prevalence of IPV as reported equal or higher to heterosexual women. Studies have found that one in four gay men and four in 10 bisexual men have experienced IPV in their lifetime. This scoping review examines studies between 1931 and 2019 that had a predominant focus on violence among gay and bisexual men. Four electronic databases were searched in 2019. Arksey and O’Malley’s framework was utilized to extract 28 studies using a range of research designs that represented 13,224 sexual minority male participants. Across studies, gay and bisexual men were observed to experience IPV similarly to heterosexual couples involving psychological, physical, and sexual violence. However, as a marginalized and sexual minority group, they experience distinctive features of violence including sexual orientation outing, unprotected sexual intercourse, homophobia, internalized homophobia, and difficulties accessing minority men–focused services. Minority stress theory is posited as a useful lens in understanding the above features. In keeping with previous scholarship, a paucity of knowledge on gay and bisexual men’s experience of IPV was observed, and additional research is recommended.

Morgenroth T., Sendén M.G., Lindqvist A., Renström E.A., Ryan M.K., Morton T.A.

In the Western world, gender/sex is traditionally viewed as binary, with people falling into one of two categories: male or female. This view of gender/sex has started to change, triggering some resistance. This research investigates psychological mechanisms underlying that resistance. Study 1 ( N = 489, UK) explored the role of individual gender identification in defense of, and attempts to reinforce, the gender/sex binary. Study 2 ( N = 415, Sweden) further considered the role of individual differences in need for closure. Both gender identification and need for closure were associated with binary views of gender/sex, prejudice against nonbinary people, and opposition to the use of gender-neutral pronouns. Policies that aim to abolish gender/sex categories, but not policies that advocate for a third gender/sex category, were seen as particularly unfair among people high in gender identification. These findings are an important step in understanding the psychology of resistance to change around binary systems of gender/sex.

Connell R.W.

Holt N.R., King R.E., Mocarski R., Woodruff N., Hope D.A.

Recommendations for health care providers working with transgender and gender diverse (TGD) individuals emphasize affirming clients' identities, such as using correct pronouns and name, however it is unknown how often gender specialists adhere to such recommendations. Websites and intake forms of gender specialists were coded for use of affirming language, asking for pronouns and chosen name, and mention of TGD specialties and resources. Most websites identified the provider's specialty to work with TGD individuals, though much fewer provided additional resources concerning TGD issues and only half of intake forms included affirming language. Given previous research that has demonstrated providers working in states with legal protections for TGD individuals use affirming language more often than providers in locales without protections, association with state legal climate is also examined.

Banerjee D., Nair V.S.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has threatened global public health. Travel has been restricted, economies slashed, borders sealed, and billions quarantined at their residences, in an attempt to contain the outbreak. Social distancing and lockdown measures have disrupted human lives in terms of social relationships and emotional bonds. Every individual is facing unique challenges to cope with these unprecedented times. However, certain sections of the population, like the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender and Queer (LGBTQ) community, are particularly vulnerable to not only the infective risks of the virus, but also the psycho-social offshoots of the global lockdown and the pandemic aftermath. The various factors range from the immunocompromised state, increased comorbidities of sexually transmitted diseases, other chronic medical disorders and substance abuse, as well as reduced access to health care, to stigma and social discrimination, administrative apathy, economic constraints, and uncertainty of social rituals like the Pride Celebrations. These can lead to the underdetection of the viral load, increased physiological risks to COVID-19, decreased help-seeking, and inequality in health and legal care. Their emotional and psychosexual well-being also gets impaired, with increased risks for psychiatric disorders and suicidality. Keeping these factors in the background, this article glances at the disproportionate risk related to the COVID-19 pandemic in the sexual minorities, explores the psycho-social factors behind the same, and highlights specific ways to mitigate these risks for better care. Adopting a rights-based perspective for the LGBTQ community through public health measures during such crises can help reduce stigma and promote their social inclusion.

Pagliaro S., Paolini D., Pacilli M.G.

Researchers interested in intimate partner violence (IPV) have focused primarily on male-against-female cases. We conducted two experimental investigations to examine the influence of moral evaluation, attribution of responsibility, and right-wing authoritarianism (RWA) on the willingness of bystanders to provide help to the victim in an IPV case involving a same-sex couple. Study 1 ( N = 195) surveyed a heterosexual participant sample, and Study 2 ( N = 120) surveyed a sample of gay and lesbian participants. In both studies, participants read a fictitious article describing an alleged IPV episode that occurred either in a male–male or a female–female couple. Each participant read an article describing one of two versions of a case of IPV: In one account, the victim admitted to infidelity and in the other, the victim did not confess to infidelity. The participants subsequently evaluated the victim and expressed their willingness (or lack thereof) to support and provide help to the injured party. In both studies, participants in the condition that included the admission of infidelity assessed the victim to be less moral and more responsible for the violent episode. Consequently, participants of both studies expressed lesser willingness to provide help to the victim. Moreover, in Study 1, the relationship between the admission of infidelity and the respondents’ willingness to support the victim was moderated by RWA. Particularly, the admission of infidelity by the victim reduced the respondents’ willingness to extend support only when they reported a medium to a high level of RWA ideology. By focusing specifically on same-sex IPV cases, this study contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of the reactions of witnesses with regard to IPV. Furthermore, it provides evidence about the underlying mechanisms mitigating the intervention of bystanders in such cases and identifies boundary conditions that exacerbate their (un)willingness to intervene.

Canan S.N., Jozkowski K.N., Wiersma-Mosley J., Blunt-Vinti H., Bradley M.

Lesbian and bisexual women have high rates of sexual violence compared to heterosexual women, yet prevalence rates vary widely across studies. The Sexual Experience Survey-Short Form Revised (SES-SFV) is the most commonly used method of measuring sexual assault and rape prevalence, but it has not been validated in this high-risk population of lesbian and bisexual women. The current study assessed a modified form of the SES-SFV utilizing a five-step, mixed-methods approach. Women (N = 1382) who identified as lesbian (31%), bisexual (32%), and heterosexual (31%) completed an online survey disseminated through Qualtrics Online Survey Company to a national audience. All types of non-consensual behaviors (non-penetrative, oral, vaginal, and anal) and nearly all perpetration tactics in the original SES-SFV emerged inductively in our qualitative data. Using quantitative data, lesbian and bisexual victims endorsed each perpetration tactic in the SES-SFV at comparable rates to heterosexual victims. SES-SFV’s false-positive categorization was minimal. However, the original SES-SFV did not capture some common experiences that participants described in their open-ended narratives. The SES-SFV satisfactorily assesses sexual assault and rape experiences in lesbian, bisexual, and heterosexual women. Possible additions and deletions to the SES-SFV are presented alongside discussion of managing comprehensiveness and participant fatigue.

Wang Y., Hu Z., Peng K., Xin Y., Yang Y., Drescher J., Chen R.

Dickerson-Amaya N., Coston B.M.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a critical public health problem. However, there is limited research conducted on and about men who are survivors. This project extends previous research by examining the post-traumatic impact of diverse forms of IPV (sexual, physical, emotional, control, and stalking) on the internalized and externalized mental health of gay, bisexual, and straight men. Using data from the National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (2011; N = 18,957), we find that all men are equally likely to report emotional victimization and controlling tactics (with between 50% and 70% doing so), while bisexual men are significantly more likely to report physical and sexual violence and gay men are significantly more likely to report intimate stalking. Due to these experiences, gay men are significantly more likely to report missing school or work, but bisexual men are significantly more likely to rate their current overall mental health as poor. Around 10% of all men, regardless of sexual orientation, report post-traumatic stress disorder symptomology and 30% of all men report difficulty sleeping. This research suggests that sexual orientation is a critical area of focus in the study of violence and mental health for men and that we can no longer ignore the voices and needs of men survivors: Invisibility is not invincibility.

(Christina) Hudson N.

Feminist advocacy and activism over the last 40 years broke historic ground in shining a light on "domestic" or "family" violence, traditionally conceptualized as male violence against female intimate partners and their children. This has resulted in a large body of research, particularly in the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, and similar jurisdictions, around the gendered nature of family violence and violence within heterosexual relationships and heterosexual-parented families. As a consequence, the predominant narrative-in political, policy, and advocacy settings-is largely heteronormative. Less research has focused on family violence in non-heterosexual relationships. The data that do exist have employed different methodological approaches and there are limitations on the extent to which they can be compared to the data on violence within heterosexual relationships. However, the existing research does demonstrate that family violence within lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and intersex (LGBTI) communities is a significant issue. Even so, the current narrative does not acknowledge this, and predominantly reflects heterosexual norms of intimate relationships and family structures in society. LGBTI relationships are described as "invisible" in policy and practice responses to family violence, due to the failure to acknowledge violence in such communities. This article explores these claims in relation to lesbian relationships in the context of Australian legislative responses to family violence. It considers the extent to which family violence laws in two Australian jurisdictions recognize and frame lesbian identity in intimate relationships and lesbian-parented families. This is considered in light of the emerging conceptualization of family violence in lesbian relationships and lesbian-parented families, as evidenced by the wider scholarly literature on the nature and dynamics of such violence.

Stults C.B., Javdani S., Kapadia F., Halkitis P.N.

Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) is an understudied health problem among young gay, bisexual, and other non-identified young men who have sex with men (YMSM). According to cross-sectional studies, IPV is associated with psychosocial and mental health problems, such as stigma and depression, among YMSM. IPV is also associated with health-risk behaviors, such as substance use, among this population. Yet, to date, no studies have used longitudinal data to examine determinants of IPV among YMSM. This gap in the extant literature is problematic, as it limits our understanding of how to intervene to interrupt cycles of violence. The aim of the present study was to examine longitudinal determinants of IPV among a sample of (N = 526) YMSM living in the New York City area. Longitudinal analyses using Generalized Estimating Equations (GEE) were used to examine individual, relationship, mental health, psychosocial, and substance use factors in relation to IPV victimization and perpetration. Most notably, early experiences of IPV were a robust predictor of later experiences of IPV victimization and perpetration. Relationship status, depression, public gay-related stigma, and illicit substance use were associated with IPV victimization over time. Similarly, relationship status, depression, public gay-related stigma, marijuana, and other illicit substance were associated with IPV perpetration. These findings suggest that prevention programs and awareness campaigns should aim to reach YMSM before their first experiences of relationship violence, as these early experiences of violence are strongly linked to later experiences of violence. Also, IPV interventions should be tailored to the needs of YMSM and should target depressive symptoms, gay-related stigma, and substance use behaviors. Additionally, substance use interventions may be improved by addressing IPV. Finally, policymakers should support policies that improve the social climate for LGBTQ people, thereby reducing gay-related stigma, and potentially stemming violence against and among YMSM.

Olive P.

Objectives To investigate the availability of intimate partner violence-related population health information in England and the possibility of identifying intimate partner violence-exposed population sample frames from administrative health data systems in England employing the International Classification of Disease. Methods Research design was an exploratory mixed method approach that involved trend analysis of numbers of applications of International Classification of Disease intimate partner violence classifications for admissions to NHS hospitals in England over a five-year period and semi-structured focus group interviews with clinical coders at an NHS Hospital. Results Use of International Classification of Disease intimate partner violence classifications was generally low across NHS Trusts in England. There was notable variation in the numbers of applications across NHS providers which demographic differences or rates of violence perpetration would not account for. The interview findings revealed conceptual ambiguity regarding intimate partner violence classifications which presented challenges for clinical coding and raised questions about the reliability and validity of International Classification of Disease’s intimate partner violence classifications. Conclusion It would not be possible to extract robust data about populations exposed to intimate partner violence for the purposes of audit, governance or research from health information systems using current International Classification of Disease-10 classifications. Development of these International Classification of Disease codes is essential for violence and abuse to be captured more accurately in health information systems and afforded greater prioritization and funding proportionate to the health burden and service demands that intimate partner violence is responsible for.

Rollè L., Giardina G., Caldarera A.M., Gerino E., Brustia P.

Over the past few decades, the causes of and intervention for Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) have been approached and studied. This paper presents a narrative review on IPV occurring in same sex couples, that is, same sex IPV (SSIPV). Despite the myth that IPV is exclusively an issue in heterosexual relationships, many studies have revealed the existence of IPV among lesbian and gay couples, and its incidence is comparable to (Turell, 2000) or higher than that among heterosexual couples (Kelley et al., 2012; Messinger, 2011). While similarities between heterosexual and lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) IPV were found, unique features and dynamics were present in LGB IPV. Such features are mainly related to identification and treatment of SSIPV in the community and to the need of taking into consideration the role of sexual minority stressors. Our findings show there is a lack of studies that address LGB individuals involved in IPV; this is mostly due to the silence that has historically existed around violence in the LGB community, a silence built on fears and myths that have obstructed a public discussion on the phenomenon. We identified the main themes discussed in the published studies that we have reviewed here. The reviews lead us to the conclusion that it is essential to create a place where this subject can be freely discussed and approached, both by LGB and heterosexual people.

Thu K.S., Linn N., Chuemchit M.

Basu P., Sharma T., Kandpal S., Sinha R.

This introductory chapter provides an entry point to the volume by conceptualizing the family, examining various forms of documented family violence, and offering an overview of social work interventions. While certain patterns of violence—especially those targeting women—are prevalent across cultures, others are shaped by specific contexts. The chapter synthesizes the diverse perspectives within the volume to present a nuanced understanding of these complexities. It concludes by emphasizing the need for culturally tailored, multifaceted approaches that can effectively address family violence.

Weiss Goitiandia S., Agarwal A., Banerjee S.C., Bhoo-Pathy N., Bose C., Chittem M., Gursahani R., Ramakrishnan L., Rana S., Salins N., Segarmurthy M.V., Thiyam A., Rosa W.E.

Basu P., Sharma T., Kandpal S., Sinha R.

This introductory chapter provides an entry point to the volume by conceptualizing the family, examining various forms of documented family violence, and offering an overview of social work interventions. While certain patterns of violence—especially those targeting women—are prevalent across cultures, others are shaped by specific contexts. The chapter synthesizes the diverse perspectives within the volume to present a nuanced understanding of these complexities. It concludes by emphasizing the need for culturally tailored, multifaceted approaches that can effectively address family violence.

Tubman J.G., Lee J., Moore C.

This cross-sectional study documented between-group differences in risk factors associated with sexual victimization histories in an ethnically and racially diverse sample of transgender emerging adults ( N = 248, ageM = 22.61 years). The sample was recruited using the Internet-based CloudResearch platform to answer questionnaires assessing predictors for recent experiences of intimate partner violence (IPV). Participants were categorized into four groups based on cross-classified self-reports of child sexual abuse (CSA) and recent sexual IPV, prior to the use of multivariate analysis of variance to evaluate mean score differences for past-year substance use, minority stressor, and relationship functioning variables. Participants reporting sexual IPV reported higher scores for all substance use variables, while transfeminine participants reported significantly higher scores for alcohol use problems and negative consequences related to substance use. Participants reporting both CSA and sexual IPV also reported the highest scores for everyday discrimination. Participants who experienced sexual IPV also reported the highest scores for internalized sexual stigma. Sexual revictimization among transgender adults occurs in the context of harmful patterns of substance use and several minority stressors. Our findings have implications for healthcare or counseling services for transgender emerging adults who have experienced multiple forms of victimization, substance use problems, and minority stressors, including the importance of trauma-informed and integrated intervention services, and specialized training for service providers.

Kharwar S., Singh P.

Evidence of experienced discrimination by the lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) individuals makes it necessary to investigate antecedents of prejudice towards them. Desired social contact (DSC) and social distancing practices towards LGBT community may be related to the knowledge about and attitudes towards the LGBT community. However, the inter-construct mechanism underlying such practices needs to be investigated. Considering this need, the present study explored the relationship between knowledge, attitude, DSC and social distance practices towards the LGBT community. A total of 315 heterosexual participants (male—184, female—131; Mage = 24.66, SDage = 3.38) were contacted through emails and social media between November 2021 and February 2022 and requested to fill the questionnaires. The findings indicate that the relationships between knowledge, DSC and social distancing practices are significantly mediated by attitudes towards the LGBT community. The standardized indirect effect of knowledge (via attitude) on DSC was statistically significant (β = 0.47; 95% CI, 0.54, 0.40; p = 0.005). Also, knowledge’s standard indirect effect (via attitude) on social distancing was statistically significant (β =  − 0.25; 95% CI, − 0.32, − 0.16; p = 0.005). The findings assert that knowledge about and attitude towards LGBT community play a crucial role in shaping social contact and social distancing practices towards them. Increased knowledge about alternative sexualities may effectively reduce negative attitudes and social distancing practices and create a more inclusive and accepting society for sexual minority groups. Policymakers should strive to enhance the knowledge of general populations concerning sexuality and homosexual attractions through awareness programs and formal teaching.