Lifecycle Assessment of Battery Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Internal Combustion Engine-Powered Cars in India

<div>Battery electric vehicles have gained popularity in the transport sector of late and are considered to emit lower greenhouse gas emissions than their internal combustion engine-powered counterparts. This study conducted a “cradle-to-grave” lifecycle assessment for two sets of battery electric, hybrid electric, and internal combustion engine vehicles sold in India to assess which powertrain emits lower greenhouse gas emissions during their lifetime. The system boundaries of the “cradle-to-grave” analysis consist of vehicle manufacturing, usage, maintenance, recycling of components, and finally, disposal. The “well-to-wheel” analysis includes oil extraction, feedstock cultivation, transportation, refining, fuel production, blending, and supply. This study considered India’s electricity generation mix from thermal, nuclear, solar, wind, and hydropower plants in different regions for 2020–2021. Greenhouse gas emissions from all three categories of vehicles were calculated for a lifespan of 200,000 km driven over 10 years, with the functional unit being per km. Sensitivity analysis for one-time battery replacement, region-wise electricity generation mix, along with the effect of ambient temperature on fuel economy, ethanol–gasoline blends, and distance traveled during vehicle lifetime, is considered in this study. The study concluded that the “well-to-pump” GHG emissions were more for ethanol than gasoline. Hybrid vehicles fueled with ethanol–gasoline blend emitted fewer greenhouse emissions than the other two powertrains for both combinations.</div>