Iodide Photoredox and Bond Formation Chemistry

Iodide redox chemistry is intimately coupled with the formation and breaking of chemical bonds that are relevant to emerging solar energy technologies. In this Account, recent advances in dye-sensitized iodide oxidation chemistry in organic solutions are described. Here RuII sensitizers with high cationic charge, tuned reduction potentials, and specific iodide receptor site(s) are shown to self-assemble in organic solvents and yield structures that rapidly oxidize iodide and generate I-I bonds when illuminated with visible light. These studies provided new insights into the fascinating behavior of our most polarizable and easily oxidized monatomic anion. Sensitized iodide photo-oxidation in CH3CN solutions consists of two mechanistic steps. In the first step, an excited-state sensitizer oxidizes iodide (I-) to an iodine atom (I•) through diffusional encounters. The second step involves the reaction of I• with I- to form the I-I bond of diiodide, I2•-. The overall reaction converts a green photon into about 1.64 eV of free energy in the form of I2•- and the reduced sensitizer. The free energy is only transiently available, as back-electron transfer to yield ground-state products is quantitative. Interestingly, when the free energy change is near zero, iodide photo-oxidation occurs rapidly with rate constants near the diffusion limit, i.e., >1010 M-1 s-1. Such rapid reactivity is in line with anecdotal knowledge that iodide is an outstanding electron donor and is indicative of adiabatic electron transfer through an inner-sphere mechanism. In low-dielectric-constant solvents, dicationic RuII sensitizers were found to form tight ion pairs with iodide. Diimine ligands with additional cationic charge, or "binding pockets" that recognize halides, have been utilized to position one or more halides at specific locations about the sensitizer before light absorption. Diverse photochemical reactions observed with these supramolecular assemblies range from the photorelease of halides to the formation of I-I bonds where both iodides present in the ground-state assembly react. Natural population analysis through density functional theory calculations accurately predicts the site(s) of iodide ion-pairing and provides information on the associated free energy change. The ability to direct light-driven bond formation in these ionic assemblies is extended to chloride and bromide ions. The structure-property relationships identified, and those that continue to emerge, may one day allow for the rational design of molecules and materials that drive desired halide transformations when illuminated with light.