What Services Exist for LGBTQ Perpetrators of Intimate Partner Violence in Batterer Intervention Programs Across North America? A Qualitative Study

Pence E., Paymar M.

Sanger N., Lynch I.

Intimate partner violence is increasingly recognised as occurring not only between heterosexual partners but also in same-sex relationships. Heterogendered relationship norms have been identified as intersecting with other social inequalities to create and sustain power differentials between partners - and fuel violence - yet remain largely unexplored in relation to women's same-sex relationships. Building on existing feminist research we explore the use of gendered scripts in South African lesbian and bisexual women's accounts of relationship norms and practices. We apply a feminist poststructuralist lens to focus-group discussion data to investigate how such scripts are drawn on to either uphold or challenge violent and coercive relationship practices. The findings illustrate the salience of heterogendered norms and demonstrate how violent practices become possible in contexts of deepening socioeconomic impoverishment - such as in post-apartheid South Africa - where race, space, gender and sexuality are tied to attempts at reclaiming respectable personhood. Efforts to dismantle inequitable gendered power relations and attendant violent practices require both macro-interventions aimed at shifting structural constraints on lesbian and bisexual women's agency, as well as micro-processes aimed at scripting equal power relations between partners as desirable.

Babcock J., Armenti N., Cannon C., Lauve-Moon K., Buttell F., Ferreira R., Cantos A., Hamel J., Kelly D., Jordan C., Lehmann P., Leisring P.A., Murphy C., O’Leary K.D., Bannon S., et. al.

In the United States, the judicial system response to violence between intimate partners, or intimate partner violence (IPV), typically mandates that adjudicated perpetrators complete a batterer intervention program (BIP). The social science data has found that these programs, on the whole, are only minimally effective in reducing rates of IPV. The authors examined the social science literature on the characteristics and efficacy of BIPs. More than 400 studies were considered, including a sweeping, recently conducted survey of BIP directors across the United States and Canada. Results of this review indicate that the limitations of BIPs are due, in large part, to the limitations of current state standards regulating these programs and, furthermore, that these standards are not grounded in the body of empirical research evidence or best practices. The authors, all of whom have considerable expertise in the area of domestic violence perpetrator treatment, conducted an exhaustive investigation of the following key intervention areas: overall effectiveness of BIPs; length of treatment/length of group sessions; number of group participants and number of facilitators; group format and curriculum; assessment protocol and instruments; victim contact; modality of treatment; differential treatment; working with female perpetrators; working with perpetrators in racial and ethnic minority groups; working with lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) perpetrators; perpetrator treatment and practitioner–client relationships; and required practitioner education and training. Recommendations for evidence-based national BIP standards were made based on findings from this review.

Cannon C.E., Buttell F.P.

This article addresses controversies in the field over LGBTQ intimate partner violence by describing the scope of the problem, employing both the traditional feminist paradigm and poststructuralist feminist theoretical approach to frame the problem, and, lastly, provide suggestions for advancing the field using interdisciplinary theories and methods. Implications for the field, policy, and treatment of victims and perpetrators of LGBTQ intimate partner violence are discussed.

Cannon C., Hamel J., Buttell F., Ferreira R.J.

A 15-page questionnaire, the North American Domestic Violence Intervention Program Survey, was sent to directors of 3,246 domestic violence perpetrator programs (also known as batterer intervention programs, or BIPs) in the United States and Canada. Respondent contact information was obtained from state Coalitions Against Domestic Violence and from various government agencies (e.g., Attorney General) available on the Internet. Two hundred thirty-eight programs completed and returned the questionnaire, a response rate of 20%. The survey yielded descriptive data on respondent characteristics; program philosophy, structure, content, and service; client characteristics; treatment approach and adjunct services; and group facilitator views on intervention approaches and domestic violence policy and treatment standards. The programs varied in the extent to which they adhere to treatment approaches suggested by the empirical research literature. In addition, chi-square analyses were conducted on the associations between several factors. Significant correlations were found between respondent low level of education and adherence to a feminist-gendered program philosophy; respondent low level of education and use of a shorter assessment protocol; feminist-gendered program philosophy and incorrect facilitator knowledge about domestic violence; and feminist-gendered program philosophy and a program focus on power and control as the primary cause of domestic violence.

Hamel J., Ferreira R.J., Buttell F.

Objective: The purpose of the present study was to investigate the impact of gender and other variables commonly associated with intimate partner abuse perpetration on program completion and pretreatment abusiveness profiles among a sample of men and women ordered into a 52-week batterer intervention program (BIP). Method: The study employed a posttest only design with nonequivalent groups (comparing program completers to dropouts and men to women) in an analysis of 175 clients mandated into a BIP. Results: Analysis indicated that there were no significant differences between men and women in terms of program completion and that women were significantly more likely than men to report engaging in severe physical abuse perpetration, and a logistic regression analysis indicated that dropouts were 6 times more likely to have initiated physical abuse compared to completers. Conclusion: These findings reveal characteristics of BIP program participants as they relate to self-reported abusiveness and provide preliminary evidence suggesting that both BIP pretreatment profiles and treatment completion rates of men and women are similar, with implications for policy and treatment.

Russell B.

Okuda M., Olfson M., Wang S., Rubio J.M., Xu Y., Blanco C.

This study presents data on the association of intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration and rates of psychiatric disorders, and other correlates. Data were drawn from Wave 2 of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC), a nationally representative sample of adults in the United States, 18 years and older, residing in households and group quarters. The sample comprised adults who reported being in a relationship within the past 12 months (N = 25,631). Of these, 1,677 individuals reported perpetrating IPV (4.2% in men, 7.0% in women). Compared to non-IPV perpetrators, IPV perpetrators had greater odds of having any psychiatric disorder, 42.0% and 67.7%, respectively, OR = 2.89, 95% CI [2.51, 3.32]. After adjusting for the effects of nuisance variables, being younger, having an alcohol use disorder, a personality disorder, low levels of social support, and low income were associated with perpetration. Across a wide range of factors, IPV victimization itself had the strongest association with perpetration, AOR = 66.12, 95% CI [55.01, 79.48]. Mental health assessments of IPV perpetrators might offer an opportunity to identify and treat psychiatric disorders and improve the clinical course of conditions that can be affected by ongoing acts of violence.

Hellemans S., Loeys T., Buysse A., Dewaele A., De Smet O.

This study focused on intimate partner violence (IPV) among non-heterosexuals in Flanders. Prevalence rates were explored and compared with heterosexual IPV using a first representative sample consisting of 1690 heterosexuals and non-heterosexual individuals. A second convenience sample consisting of 2401 non-heterosexual individuals was used to determine differences between women and men and to explore associations between IPV and victims’ well-being. Physical and psychological IPV inflicted by the current/former partner were reported by 14.5 and 57.9 % of the non-heterosexuals, respectively. Non-heterosexuals and heterosexuals were equally likely to report physical and psychological IPV. Furthermore, non-heterosexual women and men reported similar physical, sexual, and psychological IPV. However, female victims experienced more frequent acts of psychological IPV. IPV was negatively associated with victims’ well-being.

Cannon C.

This article examines the intimate partner violence (IPV) literature, particularly scholarship of the gender paradigm, for a heteronormative bias—normative expectations, constraints, and demands of heterosexuality. Beginning with a critique of the gender paradigm’s framing of IPV as an extension of patriarchy that assumes a male perpetuator and female victim, this article moves to examine research on female perpetrators to gain insight on alternative arrangements of perpetrators and victims. Next, this article analyzes heteronormative biases implicit in policy implications and intervention services of the dominant gender paradigm theoretical framework. Finally, we discuss treatment options for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender perpetrators, with suggestions for future services.

Ferreira R.J., Buttell F.P.

Objective: The purpose of the study was to evaluate the psychosocial predictors of propensity for abusiveness among a large sample of women ordered into a 26-week batterer intervention program (BIP). Method: The study employed a nonequivalent, control group design (comparing program completers to dropouts) in a secondary analysis of 485 women. Results: Analysis indicated that (1) there were no significant differences between program completers and dropouts on their propensity for abusiveness. (2) There are specific family of origin indicators associated with higher levels of propensity for abusiveness among women batterers. (3) Family of origin indicators leading to increased propensity for abusiveness were significantly different among racial groups. Conclusion: These findings reveal characteristics of women batterers, as they relate to the propensity for abusiveness and provide preliminary evidence suggesting exposure to various forms of violence in family of origin helps explain the use of violence by adult women against their intimate partners.

Mason T.B., Lewis R.J., Milletich R.J., Kelley M.L., Minifie J.B., Derlega V.J.

Psychological Aggression (PA) is a common and serious problem in the relationships of lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) individuals. It includes a range of behaviors that are used to hurt, coerce, control, and intimidate intimate partners. This paper reviewed the conceptualizations of PA, summarized the extant literature on PA among LGB women and men, and offered recommendations to improve the investigation of PA among LGB individuals. The conceptualization, definition, measurement, and prevalence of PA perpetration and victimization vary widely across studies. Different definitions and methods of assessing PA, a lack of consistency in examining and reporting psychometric information on measures used to assess PA among LGB samples, and varying sample characteristics make it difficult to compare results across studies. As a result, we know relatively little about the antecedents and consequences of PA among LGB individuals. In order to advance research in this area and increase understanding of this serious public health problem, it is necessary to: (1) clarify what constitutes PA; (2) specify the psychometric aspects of measures used to assess PA; (3) report details about sexual minority participants' sexual orientation/identity; (4) examine LGB-specific variables; and (5) utilize advanced methodological and statistical approaches to studying PA.

Eckhardt C.I., Murphy C.M., Whitaker D.J., Sprunger J., Dykstra R., Woodard K.

In this review, we provide a descriptive and detailed review of intervention programs for intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetrators and survivor-victims. Given the extensive personal, interpersonal, and societal costs associated with IPV, it is essential that services being offered by the criminal justice, mental health, and medical communities have requisite empirical support to justify their implementation. The review involved a detailed summary of all studies published since 1990 using randomized or quasi-experimental designs that compared an active intervention program to a relevant comparison condition. These studies included 20 studies investigating the effectiveness of “traditional” forms of batterer intervention programs (BIPs) aimed at perpetrators of IPV, 10 studies that investigated the effectiveness of alternative formats of BIPs, 16 studies of brief intervention programs for IPV victim-survivors, and 15 studies of more extended intervention programs for IPV victim-survivors. Interventions for perpetrators showed equivocal results regarding their ability to lower the risk of IPV, and available studies had many methodological flaws. More recent investigations of novel programs with alternative content have shown promising results. Among interventions for victim-survivors of IPV, a range of therapeutic approaches have been shown to produce enhancements in emotional functioning, with the strongest support for cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) approaches in reducing negative symptomatic effects of IPV. Supportive advocacy in community settings has been shown to reduce the frequency of revictimization relative to no-treatment controls, although rates of revictimization remain alarmingly high in these studies. Brief interventions for victim-survivors have had more complex and less consistently positive effects. Several studies have found significant increases in safety behaviors, but enhanced use of community resources is often not found. It remains unclear whether brief safety interventions produce longer term reduction in IPV revictimization. Discussion summarizes the general state of knowledge on interventions for IPV perpetrators and victim-survivors and important areas for future research.

Ford C.L., Slavin T., Hilton K.L., Holt S.L.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is as prevalent in lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) relationships as it is in heterosexual ones; however, the issues, needs, and challenges associated with assisting or advocating on behalf of LGBT persons are poorly understood. Using community-based participatory approaches, we conducted a brief survey of professionals (e.g., shelter staff, domestic violence prevention and intervention programs, law enforcement) affiliated with one or more domestic violence prevention and/or intervention networks in Los Angeles, California. The sample, which included professionals ( N = 54) from diverse programs/agencies, was obtained using purposive and snowball sampling. Participants self-administered a 33-item, online questionnaire. Analyses primarily involved descriptive statistics (frequencies, proportions). Most respondents had little or no training in LGBT IPV; nevertheless, nearly 50% of them reported having assisted LGBTs “sometimes” or “often” in the past year. Nearly all (92%) reported that their agencies/programs lack staff with dedicated responsibilities to LGBT IPV. The most frequent requests for assistance respondents reported receiving from LGBTs were for counseling, safe housing, legal assistance, and assistance navigating the medical system. The findings suggest that staff believe their agencies/programs inadequately address LGBT IPV but that many of the inadequacies (e.g., lack of staff training on LGBT IPV) are remediable.

Baker N.L., Buick J.D., Kim S.R., Moniz S., Nava K.L.

Even though scientific and legal recognition of same-sex relationships has increased, same-sex intimate partner violence (IPV) has not been included in the core conceptualization of the research and theorizing about IPV. Because of its inherent disjuncture from the patriarchal and hetero-normative marriage model, battering in the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered community needs a much closer examination. Examining the violence that occurs in same-sex relationships allows us to reframe how we look at IPV and scrutinize the ideological frameworks, cultural narratives, and stereotypes that have been set forth as well investigate further the predictors of violence and the use of scales created. This article reviews the research on same-sex IPV primarily within the United States. In placing the lessons of same-sex IPV in the foreground, we are able to uncover some common truths about IPV in general. Viewing IPV through a same-sex lens removes gender-based assumptions about the manifestations of IPV, enabling us to see how other cultural and systemic factors may contribute to IPV. At the same time, incorporating the experience of same-sex couples facilitates viewing gender as a marker for variables requiring further study rather than as an explanation. When we change our focus of IPV in such a way, we discover it is a function of a complex interaction of culture, social structures, social status, and interpersonal dynamics.

Worrell S., Mellendez-Torres G.J., Bourne A., Macioti P.G., Hill A.O., Amos N.

Abstract Purpose The COVID-19 pandemic has presented unique challenges and concerns regarding the potential exacerbation of violence against lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans and gender diverse and queer people from intimate partners and family members. The impacts of the pandemic may have been disproportionately felt by LGBTQ communities who already experienced high rates of intimate-partner violence and violence from family members entering the pandemic. Method Data from 3,135 LGBTQ adults who completed an online survey of their experiences in Australia during the pandemic were analysed. Logistic regressions analyses were used to explore sociodemographic characteristics associated with rates of violence from an intimate partner or family member during the pandemic as well as the impact of government-ordered lockdowns on experience of these types of violence by comparing the states that experienced more extensive lockdowns (Victoria and New South Wales) to the rest of Australia. Results The study revealed high rates of violence from an intimate partner (16.9%) or family member (29.1%) during the pandemic, with many indicating that this violence was new or worsening during the pandemic. Experiences of IPV and violence from a family member were found to vary across gender, sexual orientation, multicultural background and residential location. However, no evidence suggested that lockdowns specifically had impacted the prevalence of IPV or violence from a family member within the LGBTQ community with rates not differing across states. Conclusions The risks of violence from an intimate partner or family member among LGBTQ individuals were high during the pandemic in Australia, regardless of lockdown measures. The findings underscore the importance of efforts to understand the systemic factors influencing IPV and violence from a family member within the LGBTQ community and address the enduring impacts of the pandemic.

Larance L.Y., Miller S.L.

Much of the focus of the feminist antiviolence movement has been directed toward the experiences of cisgender heterosexual people and their criminal legal system (CLS) contact. Less is known about the experiences of racially marginalized cisgender lesbians who have had CLS contact due to their use of force or alleged use of force. Addressing this gap in the literature, this study focuses on the written reports of 14 cisgender lesbians, 10 of whom are women of color. Their self-reports documented during court-ordered antiviolence intervention intake assessments following their arrests and convictions provide first-person accounts of why the women perpetrated harm against their intimate partners. Using thematic analysis, the authors inductively and deductively analyzed the women's descriptions for exploratory themes. Centering the women's words and experiences through the resulting themes, the authors encourage a critical analysis of cis heteronormative institutional practices that pose barriers to cisgender lesbians receiving holistic support while navigating intimate partner violence and abuse. Considerations for feminist social work practice, advocacy, and research are discussed.

Pless J., Gibbs J.J.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a pervasive issue among men who have sex with men (MSM). However, IPV has long been conceptualized as abuse between a male perpetrator and a female victim, leaving gaps in the literature on the unique impacts IPV victimization has for both male victims and victims in same-sex relationships. This study examines relationships between IPV and negative minority stress experiences specific to LGBTQ individuals: overt experiences of homophobia, sexual orientation microaggressions, and internalized homophobia. Participants ( N = 168) were recruited through three popular MSM networking applications (i.e., Grindr, Jack’d, and Scruff. Most were recruited from one state in the southeastern United States. Ordinary Least Squares regressions were used to examine IPV as a predictive factor in three separate models, all of which controlled for age, race, outness, and gay community connection (GCC). IPV victimization is associated with increased levels of experiences of overt homophobia, homophobic microaggressions, and internalized homophobia for MSM. Outness, or being open with the people in one’s life about one’s MSM identity, is associated with lower levels of both sexual orientation microaggressions and internalized homophobia. GCC is also associated with lower levels of internalized homophobia. Results from this study show that IPV victimization is related to minority stressors for MSM. These findings support the existence of unique elements of IPV for LGBTQ victims, specifically MSM. Implications for IPV researchers and service providers are discussed, including the importance of the protective role of outness and GCC against some minority stressors.

Kruis N.E., Ménard K.S., Rowland N.J., Griffith R.

This experimental vignette study used nationally representative survey data ( n = 841) to examine the effects of perpetrator sex and sexuality and victim sex on simulated juror punitivity and sentencing recommendations for individuals convicted of aggravated assault and domestic abuse. Results show participants recommended longer sentences and higher fines for male than for female offenders, and for those who victimized women than for those who victimized men, suggesting the effects of jurorbias on punitive attitudes are influenced by offender and victim sex. However, the effects of offender sexuality were insignificant in modeling. Path analysis showed that sex differences found in baseline models were partially explained by stigmatization (i.e., perceptions of dangerousness, fatalism blame, and social distance) hypothetical jurors attached to offenders.

Sotiroff A., Berte J., Hamel A., Langhinrichsen-Rohling J.

Davis L.S., Crain E.E.

AbstractLesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and other sexual and gender minority (LGBTQ+) individuals likely experience more intimate partner violence (IPV) than their cisgender, heterosexual counterparts. Though the research on IPV among LGBTQ+ individuals is lacking in quantity, available evidence suggests LGBTQ+ individuals have unique risk factors for IPV victimization and perpetration, express identity‐specific reasons for underreporting IPV, and experience types of IPV specific to their sexual orientation and/or gender identities. Bisexual and transgender individuals appear to be at significantly higher risk of IPV victimization compared to their peers. A search of the Family Court Review archives suggests that IPV affecting bisexual parents has never been directly addressed in the publication, nor has IPV affecting transgender or gender‐nonconforming parents, and the last article on the topic of IPV in gay and lesbian relationships (Bunker Rohrbaugh, 2006) was published more than 15 years ago when marriage and adoption rights were unavailable to most LGBTQ+ individuals. The current article provides an updated and comprehensive discussion of IPV within the broader LGBTQ+ community, reviews the limitations of the extant literature and the need for more research, and demonstrates that LGBTQ+ IPV is a complex issue with which all family court practitioners should be familiar.

Cannon C.E., Buttell F.

This chapter explores the ongoing debate between the gendered paradigm and the family violence paradigm in explaining the etiology of intimate partner violence (IPV). The gendered paradigm of IPV typically argues that violence occurs as an expression of power and control to exert patriarchal norms that clearly delineates an aggressor (man) and victim (woman) binary. The family violence paradigm advances social learning models as necessary to understanding the development of IPV, not as an expression of patriarchy, but from how behavior and the relationship to feelings are learned. Given that research has pointed toward comparable rates of IPV occurring across gender and sexual identity, a new theoretical model is needed to better understand how and why people use violence in navigating their intimate relationships. Building on these approaches, we introduce a novel paradigm rooted in queer theory to improve our understanding of who, how, and why people from diverse sexuality and gender backgrounds engage in IPV. This queer paradigm of IPV deconstructs the aggressor –>victim binary presented in the gendered paradigm to reveal the ways in which individuals can draw on their own agency to redraw their relationships with emotions to reduce instances of IPV.

Cannon C.E.

Blosnich J.R.

This scoping review of reviews aimed to detail the breadth of violence research about sexual and gender minorities (SGMs) in terms of the three generations of health disparities research (i.e., documenting, understanding, and reducing disparities). Seventy-three reviews met inclusion criteria. Nearly 70% of the reviews for interpersonal violence and for self-directed violence were classified as first-generation studies. Critical third-generation studies were considerably scant (7% for interpersonal violence and 6% for self-directed violence). Third-generation research to reduce or prevent violence against SGM populations must account for larger scale social environmental dynamics. Sexual orientation and gender identity (SOGI) data collection has increased in population-based health surveys, but administrative datasets (e.g., health care, social services, coroner and medical examiner offices, law enforcement) must begin including SOGI to meet the needs of scaled public health interventions to curb violence among SGM communities.

Santoniccolo F., Trombetta T., Rollè L.

Same-Sex Intimate Partner Violence (SSIPV) is a complex issue that can be severely damaging. When involved in SSIPV, victims and perpetrators sometimes choose to seek help. The help-seeking process, however, can be difficult. Experiences of help-seeking seem to vary and may be positive or negative depending on several factors, some of which appear to be specific to lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) people involved in a same-sex relationship. A systematic review of the literature has been conducted across four databases following the PRISMA statement guidelines. Out of 410 screened abstracts, 78 articles were selected for full-text review. Following the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 21 studies were included in the current review. Thematic analysis was conducted on these studies and results were discussed by three reviewers. Help-seekers tended to use informal sources of help, perceived to be ambivalently helpful. Formal sources tended to be utilized sparingly, except for counselors. Many formal sources were perceived to be unhelpful, and most of the studies identified several barriers to services that prevented effective help. Formal and helpful sources were perceived as knowledgeable and sensitive about LGB themes. While existing research is limited, formal services that can provide effective care for SSIPV appear scarce. Barriers to services seem widespread, limiting accessibility. Existing services would benefit from increasing their knowledge and sensitivity on SSIPV-specific themes. The development of policies, programs, and interventions that aim to provide effective help is needed, as well as more research.

Cannon C., Buttell F.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a global social problem that results in economic, social, and health costs for individuals and their communities. Moreover, due to the stress, anxiety, and home isolation brought on by COVID-19, recent reports suggest an alarming increase in the number of reported IPV victims and, thus perpetrators the world over. In particular, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) identified people are as or more likely than heterosexuals to experience and perpetrate IPV, while they are less likely to receive media attention, social support, or legal protections. Batterer intervention programs, informed by public policy and laws, are the predominant mechanism of interventions for perpetrators of IPV in the United States. As a vulnerable population with increased health and economic disparities, how do disasters impact treatment of IPV perpetration by LGBTQ people? To answer this question, the current article reviews the literature on batterer intervention programs and IPV in sex and gender minority relationships to better understand how to deliver research-supported treatment during disasters. Next, to reduce such disparities, we provide research-supported recommendations for treating LGBTQ perpetrators of IPV and shed light on meaningful interventions in the COVID-19 context. Implications and recommendations for public policy are further discussed.

Cannon C.

Batterer intervention programs (BIPs)Batterer intervention programs are the predominant form of treatment for perpetrators of intimate partner violence (IPV)Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) in the U.S. because these programs tend to be the go-to treatment option mandated by U.S. courts. Recent scholarship has begun to take seriously that LGBTQLGBTQ folks use violence to mediate their intimate relationships in comparable or increased rates as opposite-sex relationships. As LGBTQ people are increasingly accepted into society as equal rightsholders, and as such are increasingly arrested at similar rates to perpetrators in opposite-sex relationships, we can expect that LGBTQ people will also similarly be mandated to BIPs for treatment of IPV perpetration. But are BIPsBatterer intervention programs prepared to treat LGBTQ perpetrators of IPV? This chapter will assess current treatment programs for LGBTQLGBTQ perpetrators of IPVIntimate Partner Violence (IPV) , identify necessary modifications to treatment programs for LGBTQ populations, and discuss important avenues for future research.

Cannon C.

Feminist theoryFeminist theory is a collection of feminist approaches that have provided important insights to understanding how power and violence operate in intimate partner relationships. Often credited with ending a husband’s right to abuseAbuse , second wave feminist theory upheld that women—specifically in (heterosexual) marriages—have the right not to be assaulted regardless of whether the perpetrator is their legal spouse. Recent advances in feminist theory—such as intersectionalityIntersectionality , black feminist thought, poststructuralist feminist and queer theories—have sought to center the experiences of women of color and LGBT people. In doing so, they have shed light on the innerworkings of particular systems of oppression (namely racism, homophobia, and transphobia), increasing our knowledge of how power and violence are shaped, and how they shape intimate relationships. This chapter will trace a history of feminist theoriesFeminist theory from the second wave through black feminist thought to intersectionalityIntersectionality and poststructuralist feminist theoriesFeminist theory to queer theory to illustrate their contributions to knowledge of IPVIntimate Partner Violence (IPV) . Specifically, the chapter will explore how different feminist theories’Feminist theory conceptions of power and identity enhance our understanding of intimate partner violenceIntimate Partner Violence (IPV) .

Donovan C., Barnes R.

In Chapter 5 , our focus shifts to the implications of our findings for policy and practice. We begin with a brief overview of current policy and practice responses to both LGB and/or T+ intimate partner violence and abuse (IPVA) and perpetrators of domestic violence and abuse (DVA) within the UK, with significant gaps in provision for all perpetrators being noted. However, we demonstrate in this chapter that although participants widely reported support needs and a desire to change how they behaved in relationships, few would have been at the threshold for a perpetrator intervention. This leads us to argue for a more holistic, ‘relationships services’ approach to responding to different types of IPVA. We discuss participants’ help-seeking experiences and barriers, including those related to the intersections between being LGB and/or T+ and other aspects of their identities and biographies. Finally, we introduce the Coral Project Power, Control and Space for Reaction Wheel as a new tool for practitioners. Accompanying this are recommendations for providing more nuanced, safer and inclusive responses to LGB and/or T+ people who are experiencing and/or enacting ‘abusive’ behaviours, many of which would enhance responses to heterosexual, cisgender people too.