Open Access
Open access
Scientific Reports, volume 15, issue 1, publication number 5274

Reference ranges of gender- and age-related heart rate variability parameters in Russian children

Vladimir Shvartz 1
, 
Vasily Danilov 2
, 
Svetlana Koroleva 1
, 
Elena Shvartz 3
, 
Sergey Donakanyan 1
, 
Vadim Permyakov 2
, 
Nadezhda Erastova 4
, 
Elena Golukhova 1
1
 
Bakulev Scientific Center for Cardiovascular Surgery, Moscow, Russia | 
2
 
Autonomous Non-Profit Organization of Additional Education Sports School “Become a Champion”, Krasnodar, Russia
3
 
National Medical Research Center for Therapy and Preventive Medicine, Moscow, Russia | 
4
 
Foundation for the Support of Physical Culture and Sports “Become a Champion”, Moscow, Russia
Publication type: Journal Article
Publication date: 2025-02-12
scimago Q1
wos Q1
SJR: 0.900
CiteScore: 7.5
Impact factor: 3.8
ISSN: 20452322
Abstract
To obtain reference ranges for heart rate variability (HRV) parameters in healthy children, taking into account their gender and age. The study included the results of testing 22,468 children ranging 5.5–12.5 years of age. The data were grouped by age and gender. The analysis of HRV parameters was carried out according to the standards described in existing guidelines. It was based on a 5-min rhythmogram obtained from a standard 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG). The following characteristics of the temporal and spectral analyses of HRV were studied: standard deviation of NN intervals (SDNN), power in the low-frequency band of the HRV spectrum (LF), low-frequency power as mean percentage of total power (TP) of HRV spectrum (LF%), power in the high-frequency band of the HRV spectrum (HF), high-frequency power as mean percentage of TP of HRV spectrum (HF%), power in the very-low-frequency band of HRV (VLF), and LF/HF ratio. The values of SDNN, LF, HF, HF% and TP increased with age, reaching a peak at 8 and 9 years of age. It is notable that the values of SDNN, LF and TP were significantly lower in girls in each age group. The values of LF% and LF/HF decreased with age, with a peak decrease at 8 and 9 years of age, followed by a moderate increase or stabilization. The values of LF% and LF/HF did not differ statistically significantly between boys and girls. The VLF parameter exhibited a clear trend of growth with age and had higher values in boys of each age group. The correlation between HRV and heart rate (HR) was statistically significant. The correlation graphs had similar curves in both gender groups and both age groups. The parameters of the total HRV, as well as the activity of the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), exhibited similar growth trends with age, with a peak increase in their values at 8 and 9 years of age. HR, as well as the activity of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), decreased with age. Gender differences also followed a consistent pattern: parameters characterizing the activity of the peripheral nervous system were significantly higher in boys than in girls across all age groups.
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MDPI
Frequency-Domain Features and Low-Frequency Synchronization of Photoplethysmographic Waveform Variability and Heart Rate Variability with Increasing Severity of Cardiovascular Diseases
Kiselev A.R., Posnenkova O.M., Karavaev A.S., Shvartz V.A., Novikov M.Y., Gridnev V.I.
Biomedicines scimago Q1 wos Q1 Open Access , 
2024-09-12,  citations by CoLab: 2 ,  PDF,  Abstract  
Objective—Heart rate variability (HRV) and photoplethysmographic waveform variability (PPGV) are available approaches for assessing the state of cardiovascular autonomic regulation. The goal of our study was to compare the frequency-domain features and low-frequency (LF) synchronization of the PPGV and HRV with increasing severity of cardiovascular diseases. Methods—Our study included 998 electrocardiogram (ECG) and finger photoplethysmogram (PPG) recordings from subjects, classified into five categories: 53 recordings from healthy subjects, aged 28.1 ± 6.2 years, 536 recordings from patients with hypertension (HTN), 49.0 ± 8.8 years old, 185 recordings from individuals with stable coronary artery disease (CAD) (63.9 ± 9.3 years old), 104 recordings from patients with myocardial infarction (MI) that occurred three months prior to the recordings (PMI) (65.1 ± 11.0 years old), and 120 recordings from study subjects with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) (64.7 ± 11.5 years old). Spectral analyses of the HRV and PPGV were carried out, along with an assessment of the synchronization strength between LF oscillations of the HRV and of PPGV (synchronization index). Results—Changes in all frequency-domain indices and the synchronization index were observed along the following gradient: healthy subjects → patients with HTN → patients with CAD → patients with PMI → patients with AMI. Similar frequency-domain indices of the PPGV and HRV show little relationship with each other. Conclusions—The frequency-domain indices of the PPGV are highly sensitive to the development of any cardiovascular disease and, therefore, are superior to the HRV indices in this regard. The S index is an independent parameter from the frequency-domain indices.
LLC Science and Innovations
Cross-Recurrence Quantification Of Cardiovascular Signals In Newborns Is A Sensitive Marker Of Health Status
Skazkina V.V., Mureeva E.N., Ishbulatov Y.M., Prokhorov M.D., Karavaev A.S., Hramkov A.N., Ezhov D.M., Kurbako A.V., Panina O.S., Chernenkov Y.V., Kiselev A.R.
Russian Open Medical Journal scimago Q4 wos Q4 Open Access , 
2024-06-28,  citations by CoLab: 1 ,  Abstract  
Background — Analysis of the state of complex biological systems requires the use of sensitive methods for diagnosing interactions using experimental time series. Objective — To evaluate the possibility of using the technique of cross-recurrence quantification (CRQ) in studying the health status of newborns using low-frequency components of RR-interval signals and photoplethysmograms, reflecting the dynamics of the circuits in autonomic regulation of blood circulation. Methods — The study included two groups of neonates: 10 full-term newborns and 10 preterm neonates. We carried out simultaneous recording of electrocardiographic and photoplethysmographic signals. CRQ analysis was employed as the primary tool. Results — We established that some indices of CRQ analysis, characterizing the degree of interaction of the studied circuits, act as sensitive markers. They make it possible to distinguish the dynamics of the studied contours between healthy newborns and preterm neonates. Conclusion — The results of our study confirmed that CRQ is a promising tool in creating methods for diagnosing health conditions, including in newborns.
MDPI
Intra-Individual Relationship between Heart Rate Variability and the Underlying Heart Rate in Children and Adolescents
Šišáková M., Helánová K., Hnatkova K., Andršová I., Novotný T., Malik M.
Journal of Clinical Medicine scimago Q1 wos Q1 Open Access , 
2024-05-14,  citations by CoLab: 1 ,  PDF,  Abstract  
Background/Objective: The relationship between heart rate and heart rate variability (HRV) indices has been repeatedly studied in adults but limited data are available on the relationship in paediatric populations. Methods: Continuous 12-lead electrocardiograms were recorded in 1016 healthy children and adolescents (534 females) aged 4 to 19 years during postural manoeuvres with rapid changes between 10-min positions of supine → sitting → standing → supine → standing → sitting → supine. In each position, the averaged RR interval was measured together with four HRV indices, namely the SDNN, RMSSD, quasi-normalised high-frequency components (qnHF), and the proportions of low- and high-frequency components (LF/HF). In each subject, the slope of the linear regression between the repeated HRV measurements and the corresponding RR interval averages was calculated. Results: The intra-subject regression slopes, including their confidence intervals, were related to the age and sex of the subjects. The SDNN/RR, RMSSD/RR, and qnHF/RR slopes were significantly steeper (p < 0.001) and the (LF/HF)/RR slopes were significantly shallower (p < 0.001) in younger children compared to older children and adolescents. Conclusions: The study suggests that sympathetic and vagal influences on heart rate are present in both younger and older children. With advancing age, the sympatho-vagal balance gradually develops and allows the vagal control to suppress the sympathetic drive towards higher heart rates seen in younger age children.
LLC Science and Innovations
Features Of The Relationship Between Postural Balance Indicators And Heart Rate Variability In Elderly Women With Falls Syndrome
Shiryaeva T.P., Fedotov D.M., Gribanov A.V., Krainova I.N., Bagretsov S.F., Preminina O.S.
Russian Open Medical Journal scimago Q4 wos Q4 Open Access , 
2024-03-25,  citations by CoLab: 2 ,  Abstract  
Objective — The goal of our study was to establish the relationship between the postural balance and heart rate variability (HRV) in elderly women with the falls syndrome. Material and Methods — The study was conducted on120 women aged 60-74 YO. The study group included women with the falls syndrome who experienced two or more falls during the year (n=60), while the comparison group consisted of women without falls (n=60). Postural balance assessment was performed via the computerized stabilometric complex Balance Master®, NeuroCom, Natus Medical, USA. The state of autonomic nervous system was assessed by cardiointervalography using the VNS-Spectrum computer appliance (Neurosoft, Russia). Results — The matrix of intersystem correlations between indicators of postural balance and HRV in women with the falls syndrome was characterized by a small number of statistically significant correlations (6.25%). Same was true for the control group (10.85%). The correlations were noted in the Sit to Stand, Tandem Walk, and Step Up and Over tests in elderly women with the falls syndrome, while in the control group, they were observed only in the Step Quick Turn test. Conclusion — Features of the relationship between postural balance indicators and HRV in elderly women with the falls syndrome were characterized by a worse coordination of intersystem interactions of HRV indicators with indicators of the performance quality of complex motor acts and power indicators of postural balance, as compared with the elderly women without falls syndrome.
Springer Nature
The effect of cranial techniques on the heart rate variability response to psychological stress test in firefighter cadets
Wójcik M., Siatkowski I.
Scientific Reports scimago Q1 wos Q1 Open Access , 
2023-05-13,  citations by CoLab: 9 ,  PDF,  Abstract  
AbstractHeart rate variability (HRV) is a simple tool to monitor cardiovascular stress. The proper function of the cardiovascular system is a problem among firefighters. Physical activity has health benefits correlated with psychological stress. Physically active people should be more resilient to psychological stress, but this has not always been demonstrated. The aim of this study was to determine whether cranial techniques would have an effect on HRV parameters. Osteopathy in the cranium reduces stress and improves cardiovascular function. Fifty-seven firefighter cadets aged 18–24 years (21.63 ± 1.41) participated in the study. All subjects had their heart rate variability measured and were randomly assigned either to the cranial techniques (CS) group, with therapy performed once a week for 5 weeks), or to the control group (CO). After 5 weeks, heart rate variability was measured again in both groups. In the Friedman test, in the CS group there was a statistically significant effect of cranial techniques on Heart Rate (HR) and Low Frequency (LF), but not on High Frequency (HF); in the CO group, a statistically significant difference was observed for HR, HF and LF. In the Nemenyi test, in the CS group there was a statistically significant difference for HR and LF and in the CO group for HR, HF and LF. After applying hierarchical clustering with Euclidean measure and the complete method, dendrograms were drawn up showing similarities for HR, HF and LF values. The cranial techniques and touch might exert a beneficial effect on HRV. Both factors can be used in stressful situations to lower HRV.
Wiley
Maturation of the Cardiac Autonomic Nervous System Activity in Children and Adolescents
Harteveld L.M., Nederend I., ten Harkel A.D., Schutte N.M., de Rooij S.R., Vrijkotte T.G., Oldenhof H., Popma A., Jansen L.M., Suurland J., Swaab H., de Geus E.J., Prätzlich M., Ackermann K., Baker R., et. al.
Journal of the American Heart Association scimago Q1 wos Q1 Open Access , 
2021-02-02,  citations by CoLab: 70 ,  Abstract  
Background Despite the increasing interest in cardiac autonomic nervous activity, the normal development is not fully understood. The main aim was to determine the maturation of different cardiac sympathetic‐(SNS) and parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) activity parameters in healthy patients aged 0.5 to 20 years. A second aim was to determine potential sex differences. Methods and Results Five studies covering the 0.5‐ to 20‐year age range provided impedance‐ and electrocardiography recordings from which heart rate, different PNS‐parameters (eg, respiratory sinus arrhythmia) and an SNS‐parameter (pre‐ejection period) were collected. Age trends were computed in the mean values across 12 age‐bins and in the age‐specific variances. Age was associated with changes in mean and variance of all parameters. PNS‐activity followed a cubic trend, with an exponential increase from infancy, a plateau phase during middle childhood, followed by a decrease to adolescence. SNS‐activity showed a more linear trend, with a gradual decrease from infancy to adolescence. Boys had higher SNS‐activity at ages 11 to 15 years, while PNS‐activity was higher at 5 and 11 to 12 years with the plateau level reached earlier in girls. Interindividual variation was high at all ages. Variance was reasonably stable for SNS‐ and the log‐transformed PNS‐parameters. Conclusions Cardiac PNS‐ and SNS‐activity in childhood follows different maturational trajectories. Whereas PNS‐activity shows a cubic trend with a plateau phase during middle childhood, SNS‐activity shows a linear decrease from 0.5 to 20 years. Despite the large samples used, clinical use of the sex‐specific centile and percentile normative values is modest in view of the large individual differences, even within narrow age bands.
American Psychological Association (APA)
Developmental patterns of respiratory sinus arrhythmia from toddlerhood to adolescence.
Dollar J.M., Calkins S.D., Berry N.T., Perry N.B., Keane S.P., Shanahan L., Wideman L.
Developmental Psychology scimago Q1 wos Q2 , 
2020-01-30,  citations by CoLab: 48 ,  Abstract  
Parasympathetic nervous system functioning as indexed by respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) is widely used as a measure of physiological regulation. We examined developmental patterns of children's resting RSA and RSA reactivity from 2 to 15 years of age, a period of time that is marked by considerable advances in children's regulatory abilities. Physiological data were collected from a community sample of 270 children (116 males) during a resting period and during a frustration laboratory task when the children were 2, 4, 5, 7, 10, and 15 years old. We examined both stability and continuity in resting RSA and RSA reactivity across time. We found stability in resting RSA but not RSA reactivity from toddlerhood to adolescence. Separate multilevel models were used to examine changes in resting RSA and RSA reactivity from Age 2 to Age 15. The rate of change in resting RSA slowed from Age 2 to Age 15 with a plateau around Age 10. A splined growth model indicated that the rate of RSA reactivity increased from Age 2 to Age 7 and a modest slowing and leveling off from Age 7 to Age 15. Understanding the developmental characteristics of RSA across childhood and adolescence is important to understanding the larger constructs of self- and emotion regulation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
LLC Science and Innovations
Autonomic control of cardiorespiratory coupling in healthy subjects under moderate physical exercises
Kiselev A.R., Borovkova E.I., Simonyan M.A., Ishbulatov Y.M., Ispiryan A.Y., Karavaev A.S., Navrotskaya E.V., Shvartz V.A.
Russian Open Medical Journal scimago Q4 wos Q4 Open Access , 
2019-12-18,  citations by CoLab: 5 ,  Abstract  
Aim of the study is to apply the analysis of phase dynamics to investigation of the coupling patterns between heart rate variability, respiration and peripheral circulation in healthy subjects at rest and after moderate physical exercises. Material and Methods ― 30-minutes electrocardiogram (ECG), photoplethysmogram (PPG) and respiration records were obtained from healthy subjects aged 22±2 (mean ± standard deviation) before and after active Martine Kushelevsky test (20 squats in 30 seconds). The coherence function was estimated between all the signals from each subject, and the phase dynamics modeling was used to detect the directional coupling in high-frequency (HF; 0.14-0.40 Hz) and low-frequency ranges (LF; 0.04-0.14 Hz). Results ― At rest (before the physical activity) no statistically significant couplings were detected between the HF rhythms of respiration and heart rate (RR intervals). For the HF rhythms in respiration and PPG, the influence respirationPPG was detected. No couplings were detected between the LF rhythms. After the moderate physical exercise, predominant direction of the influence was RR intervals  PPG in the LF range and both RR intervals  respiration and PPG  respiration in the HF range. The influence PPG  respiration was delayed by several seconds. Conclusion ― adaptation to the moderate physical activity has led to the decrease in the overall coherence and changes in patterns of directional coupling between the LF and HF rhythms in respiration, heart rate and peripheral circulation. The obtained results confirm nonlinearity and complexity of the coupling patterns in cardiovascular system.
Elsevier
Basics of autonomic nervous system function
Gibbons C.H.
Handbook of Clinical Neurology , 
2019-07-02,  citations by CoLab: 118 ,  Abstract  
The autonomic nervous system has widespread innervation to nearly every organ system in the body. In order to understand the basics of autonomic function, knowledge of the neuroanatomy of the autonomic nervous system is necessary. Frequently considered to control the “fight or flight” and “rest and digest” functions, the autonomic nervous system has an intricate network of connections to finely tune the systemic response to nearly any situation. Although traditionally considered two discrete systems (sympathetic and parasympathetic), the enteric nervous system is now considered a third component of the autonomic nervous system. This chapter reviews the background of the neuroanatomical distribution of the autonomic nervous system in order to facilitate understanding the basics of autonomic function.
SAGE
Heart rate variability: Measurement and emerging use in critical care medicine
Johnston B.W., Barrett-Jolley R., Krige A., Welters I.D.
Journal of the Intensive Care Society scimago Q1 wos Q3 , 
2019-06-11,  citations by CoLab: 62 ,  Abstract  
Variation in the time interval between consecutive R wave peaks of the QRS complex has long been recognised. Measurement of this RR interval is used to derive heart rate variability. Heart rate variability is thought to reflect modulation of automaticity of the sinus node by the sympathetic and parasympathetic components of the autonomic nervous system. The clinical application of heart rate variability in determining prognosis post myocardial infarction and the risk of sudden cardiac death is well recognised. More recently, analysis of heart rate variability has found utility in predicting foetal deterioration, deterioration due to sepsis and impending multiorgan dysfunction syndrome in critically unwell adults. Moreover, reductions in heart rate variability have been associated with increased mortality in patients admitted to the intensive care unit. It is hypothesised that heart rate variability reflects and quantifies the neural regulation of organ systems such as the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. In disease states, it is thought that there is an ‘uncoupling’ of organ systems, leading to alterations in ‘inter-organ communication’ and a clinically detectable reduction in heart rate variability. Despite the increasing evidence of the utility of measuring heart rate variability, there remains debate as to the methodology that best represents clinically relevant outcomes. With continuing advances in technology, our understanding of the physiology responsible for heart rate variability evolves. In this article, we review the current understanding of the physiological basis of heart rate variability and the methods available for its measurement. Finally, we review the emerging use of heart rate variability analysis in intensive care medicine and conditions in which heart rate variability has shown promise as a potential physiomarker of disease.
Wiley
CrossTalk proposal: Heart rate variability is a valid measure of cardiac autonomic responsiveness
Malik M., Hnatkova K., Huikuri H.V., Lombardi F., Schmidt G., Zabel M.
Journal of Physiology scimago Q1 wos Q1 , 
2019-04-21,  citations by CoLab: 64 , 
Elsevier
Autonomic maturation from birth to 2 years: normative values
Patural H., Pichot V., Flori S., Giraud A., Franco P., Pladys P., Beuchée A., Roche F., Barthelemy J.
Heliyon scimago Q1 wos Q1 Open Access , 
2019-03-07,  citations by CoLab: 32 ,  Abstract  
While heart rate variability (HRV) constitutes a relevant non-invasive tool to assess the autonomic nervous system (ANS) function with recognized diagnostic or therapeutic implications, there is still a lack of established data on maturation of autonomic control of heart rate during the first months of life. The Autonomic Baby Evaluation (AuBE) cohort was built to establish, the normal autonomic maturation profile from birth up to 2 years, in a healthy population of full-term newborns.Heart rate variability analysis was carried out in 271 full-term newborns (mean gestational age 39 wGA + 5 days) from reliable polysomnographic recordings at 0 (n = 270) and 6 (n = 221) months and from a 24-hour ambulatory electrocardiogram (ECG) at 12 (n = 210), 18 (n = 197), and 24 (n = 190) months. Indices of HRV analysis were calculated through the ANSLabTools software.Indices are dissociated according a temporal, geometrical, frequency, Poincaré, empirical mode decomposition, fractal, Chaos and DC/AC and entropy analysis. Each index is presented for five different periods of time, 0, 6, 12, 18 and 24 months and with smoothed values in the 3rd, 10th, 50th, 90th and 97th percentiles. Data are also presented for the full cohort and individualized by sex to account for gender variability.The physiological autonomic maturation profile from birth to 2 years in a healthy population of term neonates results in a fine-tuning autonomic maturation underlying progressively a new equilibrium and privileging the parasympathetic activity over the sympathetic activity.
Elsevier
Developmental trajectories of autonomic functioning in autism from birth to early childhood
Sheinkopf S.J., Levine T.P., McCormick C.E., Puggioni G., Conradt E., Lagasse L.L., Lester B.M.
Biological Psychology scimago Q1 wos Q2 , 
2019-03-01,  citations by CoLab: 34 ,  Abstract  
Deficits in social engagement emerge in autism during the infant and toddler period and may be related to emotion regulation and stress response systems. This study examined patterns of growth in autonomic functioning related to autism diagnosis and addresses the hypothesis that there are differences in autonomic functioning related to autism in infancy. Heart rate (HR) and respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) were measured at 8 time points from 1 to 72 months of age in infants later diagnosed with autism (n = 12) and a non-autistic comparison group (n = 106). Multilevel models were used to describe the developmental course of HR and RSA and to test the effect of autism diagnosis on growth trajectories. Both groups showed an expected age-related decrease in HR and increase in RSA. Groups did not differ in the rate of decrease of HR over time. However, infants with autism demonstrated a smaller linear increase in RSA, indicating slower growth in RSA over time in comparison to controls. These results suggest that differences in physiological regulation may develop with age in autism. The slowed RSA growth in autism was most evident after 18 months of age, at a time when behavioral symptoms become prominent. This is consistent with the view that RSA is a marker of functional status in autism rather than a cause of social deficits in autism.
Wiley
Should heart rate variability be “corrected” for heart rate? Biological, quantitative, and interpretive considerations
de Geus E.J., Gianaros P.J., Brindle R.C., Jennings J.R., Berntson G.G.
Psychophysiology scimago Q1 wos Q1 , 
2018-10-25,  citations by CoLab: 147 ,  Abstract  
Metrics of heart period variability are widely used in the behavioral and biomedical sciences, although somewhat confusingly labeled as heart rate variability (HRV). Despite their wide use, HRV metrics are usually analyzed and interpreted without reference to prevailing levels of cardiac chronotropic state (i.e., mean heart rate or mean heart period). This isolated treatment of HRV metrics is nontrivial. All HRV metrics routinely used in the literature exhibit a known and positive relationship with the mean duration of the interval between two beats (heart period): as the heart period increases, so does its variability. This raises the question of whether HRV metrics should be corrected for the mean heart period (or its inverse, the heart rate). Here, we outline biological, quantitative, and interpretive issues engendered by this question. We provide arguments that HRV is neither uniformly nor simply a surrogate for heart period. We also identify knowledge gaps that remain to be satisfactorily addressed with respect to assumptions underlying existing HRV correction approaches. In doing so, we aim to stimulate further progress toward the rigorous use and disciplined interpretation of HRV. We close with provisional guidance on HRV reporting that acknowledges the complex interplay between the mean and variability of the heart period.
Wiley
Developmental dynamics of autonomic function in childhood
Gatzke‐Kopp L., Ram N.
Psychophysiology scimago Q1 wos Q1 , 
2018-07-30,  citations by CoLab: 41 ,  Abstract  
There is a paucity of developmental data examining the stability of autonomic function during childhood, and even less is known regarding the extent of coordination between autonomic branches. To address this, autonomic measures of sympathetic (cardiac pre-ejection period, PEP; electrodermal activity, and EDA) and parasympathetic (respiratory sinus arrhythmia and RSA) function were collected from 339 children annually from kindergarten to second grade. Physiology was quantified into 31 epochs 30 s in length, across a series of baselines and emotion-inducing films. Rank-order stability was observed for all three indices, but was higher for cardiac than electrodermal measures. A series of multilevel models was used to identify the proportion of variance in psychophysiological function attributable to the individual (trait), visit (potential developmental change), or epoch (reactivity to task). Both PEP and RSA had sizeable components of individual-level variance, with PEP showing very small variance attributable to experimental task. In contrast, variance in EDA was largely attributable to task epoch. Variance decompositions of the parasympathetic-sympathetic coordination (e.g., RSA-EDA) suggest that the branches of the autonomic system are prototypically cooperative, but evidence did not indicate traitlike stability or linear developmental change. The extent of coordination was moderated by emotional context, indicating that autonomic coordination varies dynamically within individuals. These findings have implications for future work attempting to identify the contextual, experiential, and demographic factors that modulate developmental trajectories of autonomic function and coordination, and for examination of how developmental changes in autonomic psychophysiology are related to or predict behavioral trajectories across a range of psychological domains.

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