The Dark Figure of Disablist Violence

Oliver M.

Emerson E., Roulstone A.

In the context of there being little robust U.K. data on disabled people’s exposure to violent crime and hate crime, we examined self-reported rates of exposure over the preceding 12 months to violent crime, hate crime, and disablist hate crime in a newly established survey, the U.K.’s Life Opportunities Survey. Information was collected from a nationally representative sample of 37,513 British adults (age 16 or older). Results indicated that (a) disabled adults were significantly more likely to have been exposed over the previous 12 months to violent crime (adjusted odds ratio [OR] = 2.33, 95% confidence interval [CI] = [2.08, 2.61]) and hate crime (adjusted OR = 2.58, 95% CI = [2.17, 3.07]) than their non-disabled peers, (b) the differential risk of exposure to violent crime was particularly elevated among disabled adults with mental health problems (adjusted OR = 6.26, 95% CI = [5.01, 7.82]), (c) the differential risk of exposure to hate crime was particularly elevated among disabled adults with mental health problems (adjusted OR = 10.70, 95% CI = [7.91, 14.47]) or cognitive impairments (adjusted OR = 6.66, 95% CI = [3.95, 11.22]), and (d) these effects were strongly moderated by poverty status with no increase in differential risk of exposure for disabled adults among more wealthy respondents.

Hollomotz A.

Disabled people are exposed to a higher incidence of violence compared to the population average. Consequently, they are often described as ‘vulnerable’. This article argues that this concept focuses explanations for violence on the person at risk. It therefore redirects attention towards the social forces that make violence more likely to occur. With reference to case studies, a micro-analysis outlines how subtle forms of oppression, including imbalanced personal relationships, social exclusion, restricted autonomy and a higher tolerance for maltreatment within segregated settings, affect the daily experiences of disabled people. This is followed by a macro-analysis, which exposes further structural inequalities and a societal ratification of hostility towards disabled people. These processes are described as forming a continuum, which highlights that boundaries between mundane experiences and contact violence are at times blurred and shifting.

Jones T.M., Hillier L.

Education is state-run in Australia, and within each of the eight states and territories there are both government and independent schooling systems. This paper details the position of gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, intersex and queer (GLBTIQ) students within Australian education policy documents nationally, focusing on the three largest states and educational sectors in Australia. Survey data are used to report on the schooling experiences of over 3000 Australian GLBTIQ young people aged 14–21 years. Data from interviews with key policy informants identify both the obstacles to implementing policies, and how such obstacles have been overcome. Much official policy sees sexuality education as promoting inclusive, protective and affirming messages around GLBTIQ students. There exist significant correlations between policy and a variety of well-being and psycho-social outcomes for GLBTIQ students, including lowered incidence of homophobic abuse and suicide, and the creation of supportive school environ...

Chakraborti N., Garland J.

This article suggests that the concepts of vulnerability and ‘difference’ should be focal points of hate crime scholarship if the values at the heart of the hate crime movement are not to be diluted. By stringently associating hate crime with particular strands of victims and sets of motivations through singular constructions of identity, criminologists have created a divisive and hierarchical approach to understanding hate crime. To counter these limitations, we propose that vulnerability and ‘difference’, rather than identity and group membership alone, should be central to investigations of hate crime. These concepts would allow for a more inclusive conceptual framework enabling hitherto overlooked and vulnerable victims of targeted violence to receive the recognition they urgently need.

Roulstone A., Thomas P., Balderston S.

Hate crime is now an established term in the fields of racist and religious attacks and is acknowledged in the cultural proscription against attacks on lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender men and women. Disabled people, as so often is the case, are late in being afforded statutory recognition in hate crime. This can be explained in terms of wider constructions of disability and more pernicious and muddled constructions of disabled people as categorically ‘Vulnerable’. This construction has arguably weakened the impetus to introducing hate crime provisions and legal justice for disabled people. There is now ample evidence of hate crime being evident and pervasive in the lives of many disabled people. By drawing on two English studies of disablist hate crime, this paper draws out key aspects of hate crime policy and practice, and challenges the constructions of disability, hate and vulnerability currently operating.

Thomas P.

A common understanding of the term ‘hate crime’ involves opportunistic street crime and physical assault. The perpetrators do not usually have a relationship with their victims, although they may be known to live within the same neighbourhood. There are similarities between these types of targeted attacks against disabled people and people in other identity groups, such as BME communities, lesbians and gay men, transgender people. The term ‘mate crime’, is a play on the term ‘hate crime’, and refers to considered actions against disabled people at the hands of someone, or several people that the disabled person considers to be their friends, or they may be relatives. There does not seem to be a comparable set of hostile acts against the other identity groups who may be subjected to ‘hate crime’. Acts of ‘mate Crime’ are acts of cruelty, humiliation, servitude, exploitation and theft. The occurrences of cruelty and servitude indicate that what is currently being termed ‘mate crime’, has more in common with...

Woods J.B.

This article makes an important contribution to the field of hate studies by advancing the understanding of hate crime policing in the United Kingdom.  The article presents an ethnographic case study on hate crime policing within a small-city police station in England. The study focused primarily on the police station’s Community Cohesion Unit (CCU), which was responsible for supporting hate crime informants, and for monitoring and assisting police officers handling hate incidents and hate crimes. The case study is mostly descriptive and exploratory in nature. Its primary objective is to provide needed insight into the inner workings of a police unit in order to obtain systematic knowledge on how hate crime laws are enforced in real-world settings. The study does not aim to present a new theory of hate crime policing; but in gathering fresh data from a new source, the study suggests potential directions for future empirical work and theoretical inquiry.

Chakraborti N.

In much the same way that expressions of hate pose problems that cut across disciplines, across communities, and across borders, so too must responses be informed through international, intersectional, and interdisciplinary perspectives that serve to widen our understanding. Hate crime remains a contested and highly complex area of study and policy, and the deeper we delve to find solutions and answers, the more likely we are to stumble across further problems and questions. Identifying how best to resolve them is a difficult, ongoing task, but one that should form the basis of any progressive dialogue among hate crime scholars, policy makers, and practitioners. The nature of these problems and questions–and more importantly, the ways in which we can use them to shape contemporary hate crime discourse–is what this article seeks to explore.

Chakraborti N., Garland J.

Cronin S.W., McDevitt J., Farrell A., Nolan J.J.

Over the past two decades, significant efforts have established categories of crimes motivated by bias and so enhanced the quality of information about the prevalence of such crimes in the United States. As part of a national reporting system established by the Hate Crime Statistics Act, local police agencies collect information about the prevalence and characteristics of bias-crime incidents. Although the quality of this program has improved since its inception, local police face several challenges to identifying and accurately classifying bias crimes, including the ambiguity of applying legal definitions to cases, uncertainty regarding bias motivation, and infrequency of reported events to law enforcement. Drawing on information from eight case studies, the article examines how local police identify and record bias crimes through various kinds of reporting procedures and organizational structures. The article concludes with best practice recommendations for bias-crime tracking and reporting of incidents of bias crime within local police agencies.

Edwards B.

Hearing aids have advanced significantly over the past decade, primarily due to the maturing of digital technology. The next decade should see an even greater number of innovations to hearing aid technology, and this article attempts to predict in which areas the new developments will occur. Both incremental and radical innovations in digital hearing aids will be driven by research advances in the following fields: (1) wireless technology, (2) digital chip technology, (3) hearing science, and (4) cognitive science. The opportunities and limitations for each of these areas will be discussed. Additionally, emerging trends such as connectivity and individualization will also drive new technology, and these are discussed within the context of the areas given here.

Mason G.

Popular images of hate crime tend to portray it as a form of stranger danger'. This image has now been effectively challenged in a number of empirical studies. This article seeks to contribute to this body of research by examining the nature of the relationship between victim and perpetrator in both racist and homophobic harassment. It presents the results of a study into complaints of harassment recorded by the Metropolitan Police Service. It argues that traditional approaches to measuring this relationship, which tend to centre on the degree of intimacy between victim and perpetrator, might be helpfully developed by greater recognition of the contexts within which victim and perpetrator know each other. In particular, the article asks: if a perpetrator is recognized by a victim as someone who is familiar or local to his/her home or work, does this necessarily mean that the perpetrator is known to the victim?

Perry B.

I have become increasingly dissatisfied with the continued reliance on the term “hate crime,” due in large measure to the often willful scholarly and public misunderstanding and misuse of the phrase, wherein references are made to such processes as “the criminalization of hatred” (Dority 1994). In response to such tendencies, like Gail Mason (2001, 253) in her recent Law and Critique article, “I wish to raise some questions about hate as a heuristic device.”

McMahon B.T., West S.L., Lewis A.N., Armstrong A.J., Conway J.P.

A hate crime is a criminal offense committed against person or property that is motivated, in whole or in part, by the offender's prejudice. Hate crimes are sometimes termed “bias-motivated crimes.” The theoretical bases for bias motivation and their implications for hate crimes against Americans with disabilities are outlined. The history of the Hate Crime Statistics Act (1990) and its eventual extension to Americans with disabilities are also reviewed. Five years of aggregate data from FBI Hate Crimes Statistics reports are analyzed to compare and contrast the hate crimes experience of Americans with disabilities with that of other targeted groups based on race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and religion. Reports of hate crimes from persons with disabilities are minute as compared to those of any other group. The nature and location of hate crimes are also analyzed. Finally, the findings and their implications for such issues as alternative manifestations of prejudice, underreporting of violent crimes, cross-disability support for hate crime prevention, rehabilitation counseling practice, and future research directions are discussed.

Houghton V., Muller T.

Abstract In this article, we develop a typology of disablist hate crime that does justice to the lived experience of victims and highlights the differences between disablist hate crime and other forms of hate crime in England. This research consists of analyses of cases and semi-structured interviews with professionals. Based on interaction type, its duration, meaning, frequency, severity, and harm, we developed three categories: (1) intimidation, (2) exploitation and (3) brutalization. We argue that because of the specific symbolic nature of targeting disabled people, these acts should be considered as potential hate crimes.

Castillo I.E.

Using data from the 2017 to 2020 National Crime Victimization Survey, the current study examines how race, ethnicity, and sex affect the likelihood of reporting violent victimization to the police across types of disability (hearing, vision, cognitive, and physical). Findings reveal that Black individuals with cognitive disabilities and Hispanic individuals with multiple disabilities were less likely to report their violent victimization to the police compared to White individuals with no disabilities. Results not only support prior literature’s conclusion that disability type shapes reporting outcomes but indicate potentially cumulative effects for those at the intersections. Its implications highlight the critical need for criminal justice practitioners, victim advocates, and researchers to integrate disability and its heterogeneity into practice.

Kamp A., Sharples R., Vergani M., Denson N.

Lavorgna A., Ugwudike P., Tartari M.

Sharenting – the digital sharing of sensitive information of minors by parents or guardians – has not yet been investigated from a criminological perspective. However, there are reported concerns regarding its criminogenic potential amidst fast-growing media interest in sharenting practices, particularly in relation to the perceived crime risks. This article offers an exploratory analysis of cases where such practices led to the victimisation of minors, evidencing the gap between media reports about crime risks and actual victimisation. The paper also demonstrates that sharenting is a more complex phenomenon than generally recognised. By exploring these issues, the paper advances criminological understanding of the practice and demonstrates the divergences between media-reported crime risks and victimisation associated with sharenting. Although the paper highlights media exaggerations of such crime victimisation which can heighten public fear and anxiety, the article also provides new insights on the nature of actual victimisation, to raise awareness and aid preventative intervention.

Ktenidis A.

Fetzer M.D., Pezzella F.S.

Hate crimes are a special category of criminal behavior that involve targeting victims because of their group affiliation or immutable characteristics. Conceptually, hate crimes must include both a criminal offense and bias motivation on behalf of the offender(s). Both the criminal offense and the bias motivation need to be legally defined by statutory provisions. This chapter addresses the historical context of hate crimes in terms of occurrence and legislative response. Following the passing of the Hate Crime Statistics Act of 1990, the federal government began tracking the prevalence of hate crimes in the United States. Since then, surveillance systems such as the FBI’s Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) program and the Bureau of Justice Statistics’ National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) have measured hate crimes on an annual basis. Patterns and trends from both the UCR and NCVS are presented and compared. Over the course of the last three decades, legislation at both the federal and state levels has evolved in terms of what bias motivations (e.g., race, sexual orientation, and disability) are recognized by law and how the criminal justice system should respond to hate crimes. The debate over constitutionality of hate crime legislation is discussed. The perpetration of hate crime is addressed in the context of offenders and hate groups. Both formal and informal methods of fighting hate and preventing hate crimes are illustrated. The current body of research on this topic is evaluated to show the uniqueness of hate crime and issues with the underreporting by both victims and law enforcement. Finally, directions for the future of research and policy responses to hate crime are recommended.

Vergani M., Navarro C.

Previous research has identified numerous barriers to reporting hate crimes. However, high variability exists in the outcome measures considered across multiple studies, including whether hate crimes encompass non-criminal behaviours, whether victims’ perceptions are considered bias indicators, and whether the incident is reported to police or to other organisations. These inconsistencies prevent an understanding of whether different barriers relate to different types of hate crimes. This article presents the results of an exploratory empirical study with a convenience sample of members of minorities facing hate crime victimisation in Victoria, Australia (N = 260). Our study participants experienced different types of barriers regarding incidents with different levels of perceived severity. Internalisation and lack of knowledge were more relevant to the underreporting of incidents perceived as less serious—verbal assault. Fear of consequences, lack of trust in statutory agencies, and accessibility were more relevant to the underreporting of incidents perceived as more serious—physical violence and property destruction.

Temple J.B., Wong H., Ferdinand A., Avery S., Paradies Y., Kelaher M.

A recent Royal Commission into the treatment of Australians living with disabilities has underscored the considerable exposure to violence and harm in this population. Yet, little is known about exposure to violence among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people living with disabilities. The objective of this paper was to examine the prevalence, disability correlates and aspects of violence and threats reported by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people living with disabilities. Data from the 2014–15 National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Survey were used to measure physical violence, violent threats and disability. Multivariable logistic and ordinal logistic regression models adjusted for complex survey design were used to examine the association between measures of disability and exposure to violence and violent threats. In 2014–15, 17% of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people aged 15–64 with disability experienced an instance of physical violence compared with 13% of those with no disability. Approximately 22% of those with a profound or severe disability reported experiencing the threat of physical violence. After adjusting for a comprehensive set of confounding factors and accounting for complex survey design, presence of a disability was associated with a 1.5 odds increase in exposure to physical violence (OR = 1.54 p < 0.001), violence with harm (OR = 1.55 p < 0.001), more frequent experience of violence (OR = 1.55 p < 0.001) and a 2.1 odds increase (OR = 2.13 p < 0.001) in exposure to violent threats. Severity of disability, higher numbers of disabling conditions as well as specific disability types (e.g., psychological or intellectual) were associated with increased odds of both physical violence and threats beyond this level. Independent of these effects, removal from one’s natural family was strongly associated with experiences of physical violence and violent threats. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women, regardless of disability status, were more likely to report partner or family violence, whereas men were more likely to report violence from other known individuals. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people with disability are at heightened risk of physical violence and threats compared to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people without disability, with increased exposure for people with multiple, severe or specific disabilities.

Pezzella F.S., Fetzer M.D.

This chapter looks at the issues of victim underreporting and its consequences for inaccurate measurement of hate crimes. The chapter reviews the differences in reports of hate crime by the two major sources of official hate crime data, the FBIs Uniform Crime Report Hate Crime Statistics program and the Bureau of Justice Statistics National Crime Victimization Survey (NVCS). Chapter 7 explores bias victim’s groups that are likely to underreport and some of the reasons they may not report. Specifically, the chapter focuses on the dark figure of hate crime underreporting examining the reasons victims themselves asserted as reasons for not reporting in their responses to the NCVS. Chapter 7 also delves into the relationship between victim’s perception of police legitimacy and the likelihood of reporting. Finally, the chapter also compares reporting practices of hate crime victims to ordinary crime victims highlighting similarities and differences.

Doherty G.

Exploitative familiarity (‘mate crime’) is a recently-identified phenomenon. Available evidence suggests that exploitative familiarity has a significant impact on the lives of some disabled people,...

Hardy S., Chakraborti N.

This chapter describes the way in which hate crime policy has become increasingly relevant to many Western states and highlights the value of these developments in terms of facilitating access to justice, embodying the values of a state and deterring prejudicial and hostile sentiment. It begins by considering how hate crime has ‘translated’ across national boundaries, comparing the implementation of different policy frameworks designed to combat hate crime. It is argued that while there have been some successes in dealing with hate crime in certain individual countries, in others much work still needs to be done in developing effective policies and practices which offer meaningful protection from hate crime.

Fetzer M.D., Pezzella F.S.

Hate crimes are a special category of criminal behavior that involve targeting victims because of their group affiliation or immutable characteristics. Conceptually, hate crimes must include both a criminal offense and bias motivation on behalf of the offender(s). Both the criminal offense and the bias motivation need to be legally defined by statutory provisions. This chapter addresses the historical context of hate crimes in terms of occurrence and legislative response. Following the passing of the Hate Crime Statistics Act of 1990, the federal government began tracking the prevalence of hate crimes in the United States. Since then, surveillance systems such as the FBI’s Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) program and the Bureau of Justice Statistics’ National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) have measured hate crimes on an annual basis. Patterns and trends from both the UCR and NCVS are presented and compared. Over the course of the last three decades, legislation at both the federal and state levels has evolved in terms of what bias motivations (e.g., race, sexual orientation, and disability) are recognized by law and how the criminal justice system should respond to hate crimes. The debate over constitutionality of hate crime legislation is discussed. The perpetration of hate crime is addressed in the context of offenders and hate groups. Both formal and informal methods of fighting hate and preventing hate crimes are illustrated. The current body of research on this topic is evaluated to show the uniqueness of hate crime and issues with the underreporting by both victims and law enforcement. Finally, directions for the future of research and policy responses to hate crime are recommended.

Teasdale B., Berry B.

Berry B.

Hardy S.

Underreporting has been a longstanding problem for criminal justice agencies, which masks the true scale of crime taking place and prevents victims from accessing justice and support. Using empirical evidence collected from more than 2,000 victims who came from different backgrounds and who had experienced different forms of crimes, this article proposes a new theoretical model to enhance our understanding of underreporting. This model highlights that victim decision making is influenced by structural, social, situational and individual barriers, which interact symbiotically to create layers of resistance to reporting. The article concludes by considering what steps academics, policymakers and practitioners can take to dismantle these barriers and to improve reporting rates.