Handbook of Research on Technology Project Management, Planning, and Operations

The expression of an association between a conditioned stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned stimulus (US) can be attenuated by presenting the CS by itself (i.e., extinction, Ext). Though effective, Ext is susceptible to recovery effects such as renewal, spontaneous recovery, and reinstatement. Dunsmoor et al. (2015, 2019) have proposed that pairing the CS with a neutral outcome (novelty-facilitated Ext [NFE]) could offer better protection against recovery effects than Ext. Though NFE has been compared to Ext, it has rarely been compared to counterconditioning (CC), a similar procedure except that the CS is paired with a US having a valence opposite to the US used in initial training. We report two aversive conditioning experiments using the rapid-trial streaming procedure with human participants that compare the efficacies and susceptibilities to ABA renewal of Ext, CC, and NFE. Associative learning was assessed through expectancy learning and evaluative conditioning. CC and NFE equally decreased anticipation of the US in the presence of the CS (i.e., expectancy learning). Depending on how the CS-US association was probed, they were either as or more effective at doing so than Ext. All three interference treatments were equally susceptible to context manipulations. Only CC clearly altered the valence of the CS (i.e., evaluative conditioning). Valence ratings after Ext, CC, and NFE, as well as a no-interference control condition, were all equally susceptible to context effects. Overall, the present study does not support the assertion that NFE is consistently more resistant to recovery effects than Ext. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

In Pavlovian conditioning, the strength of a conditioned response is a function of the probability of reinforcement. However, manipulations of probability are often confounded with changes in the rate of reinforcement. Two between-group experiments in mice evaluated the effect of the probability of reinforcement, while controlling the rate of reinforcement, on appetitive conditioning and extinction. Experiment 1 equated the reinforcement rate by manipulating the number of reinforcements received in each reinforced trial in a critical group (one vs. two consecutive rewards). The results of this experiment showed that probability influenced the rate of responses in acquisition, even when controlling the reinforcement rate. Experiment 2 further assessed the role of probability on behavior while controlling the rate of reinforcement during the conditioned stimulus (CS) using a split-trial design, in which the total CS time was held constant but presented in different numbers of discrete trials (e.g., 50% reinforcement with two 12 s CS's vs. 100% reinforcement with a 24 s average CS duration). This experiment confirmed that probability influenced response rates, and both the probability and rate of reinforcement affected the proportion of trials with responses. Together, these results suggest that the probability of reinforcement, while having little effect on the speed at which responses emerged, affects responding even when the rate of reinforcement is held constant. The results challenge formal learning theories to account for the effects of both the probability and rate of reinforcement. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Separating and isolating the contributions of perception to concept formation in animals has been a long-standing and persistent challenge. Here we describe a novel approach to assessing this question by using equivalence training consisting of unrelated images as the basis for subsequent same/different (S/D) learning. Following equivalence class training, two groups of pigeons attempted to learn a go/no-go discrimination task constructed from these classes. In the go/no-go task, a consistent group was given an S/D assignment that aligned with this prior training (same vs. different classes). An inconsistent group was given go/no-go assignments that were misaligned with their established classes. The consistent group exhibited better learning and stimulus control in their S/D task than did the inconsistent group. These results suggest that pigeons can use trained properties derived from class-based information to learn an S/D task without the aid of perceptual similarity. This novel approach holds promise for helping to evaluate the contribution of perceptual similarity to different types of concept learning. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

In two experiments, participants completed two computer-based tasks: a configural acquired equivalence procedure and an optional-shift procedure. Both revealed that test performance was positively correlated, even when controlling for nonspecific variables. This finding supports the suggestion that a common mechanism underlies performance in both tasks. Experiment 2 included eye tracking to the stimuli used in the task. We found that participants who attended to the predictive compound elements in the optional-shift training went on to show stronger attentional-set effects in the subsequent test. The relationship between attention and performance is considered by reference to attentional and nonattentional learning theories. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Elemental models of associative learning typically employ a common prediction-error term.Following a conditioning trial, they predict that the change in the strength of an association between a cue and an outcome is dependent upon how well the outcome was predicted.When multiple cues are present, they each contribute to that prediction.The same rule applies both to increases in associative strength during excitatory conditioning and the loss of associative strength during extinction.In five experiments using an allergy prediction task, we tested the involvement of a common error term in the extinction of causal learning.Two target cues were each paired with an outcome prior to undergoing extinction in compound either with a second excitatory cue or with a cue that had previously undergone extinction in isolation.At test, there was no difference in the causal ratings of the two target cues.Manipulations designed to bias participants toward elemental processing of cue compounds, to promote the acquisition of inhibitory associations, or to reduce generalization decrement between training and test were each without effect.These results are not consistent with common error term models of associative learning.

Our theory of positively reinforced free-operant behavior (Perez & Dickinson, 2020) assumes that responding is controlled by two systems. One system is sensitive to the correlation between response and reinforcement rates and controls goal-directed behavior, whereas a habitual system learns by reward prediction error. We present an extension of this theory to the aversive domain that explains why free-operant avoidance responding increases with both the experienced rate of negative reinforcement and the difference between this rate and that programmed by the avoidance schedule. The theory also assumes that the habitual component is reinforced by the acquisition of aversive inhibitory properties by the feedback stimuli generated by responding, which then act as safety signals that reinforce habit performance. Our analysis suggests that the distinction between habitual and goal-directed control of rewarded behavior can also be applied to the aversive domain. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Latent inhibition is said to occur when learning about the relationship between a cue and an outcome proceeds more readily when the cue is novel relative to when the cue has been rendered familiar through mere preexposure.Previous studies suggest that latent inhibition, while evident in 4-to 5-year-old children, is attenuated or even absent in older children.There are, however, acknowledged shortcomings associated with previous demonstrations of this effect, which we attempted to overcome using a letter prediction task that has been employed in recent studies of latent inhibition in adults.One hundred and seventy-five 4-to 14-year-old children and 175 young adults completed a letter prediction task, with a latent inhibition manipulation embedded within it.Using developmental trajectory analysis we found, contrary to other studies, an increase in the magnitude of latent inhibition as children age, with the effect becoming significant when children were around 6.7 years of age.Model comparison revealed that a linear function best described the relationship between latent inhibition and age.We discuss these findings in the context of theories of learning and attention, and consider the role of concurrent task type as a factor that determines the developmental trajectory of latent inhibition.

Four experiments examined human ratings of causal effectiveness, and ability to detect causal relationships, in a nonverbal paradigm. Participants responded on a concurrent random interval, extinction schedule. In the presence of one stimulus, responses produced an outcome (triangle flash); in the presence of the other stimulus, they did not. Following making a judgment of causal effectiveness, two further stimuli were presented simultaneously with one another, and participants had to select one depending on which of the previous two stimuli were associated with effective responses. In all experiments, immediate outcomes were associated with higher causal ratings and better causal detection than outcomes delayed by 3 s. A signal inserted between response and outcome improved ratings and detection (Experiments 2 and 4), even when it was contiguous with the response but not the outcome (Experiments 2 and 3). Stimuli associated with both components (marking cues) did not impact judgments or detection (Experiment 3). Stimuli signaling the availability of an outcome if a response was made (signaled reinforcement) did not improve causal judgments, but did improve detection of stimuli associated with the outcome (Experiment 4). Responses during the delay interfered with detection of the actual relationship when delays were unsignaled (Experiments 1-4), but not with fully or briefly signaled delays (Experiments 2-4), or with signaled reinforcement (Experiment 4). The results suggest a delay stimulus serves to signal the response has been successful and demark the delay period by serving a discriminative function. These findings mirror those seen in nonhuman conditioning. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

The ABA renewal effect occurs when behavior is trained in one context (A), extinguished in a second context (B), and the test occurs in the training context (A).Two mechanisms that explain ABA renewal are context summation at the test and contextual modulation of extinction learning, with the former being unlikely if both contexts have a similar associative history.In two experiments, we used within-subjects designs in which participants learned to avoid a loud noise (unconditioned stimulus) signaled by discrete visual stimuli (conditioned stimuli [CSs]), by pressing the space bar on the computer keyboard.The training was conducted in two contexts, with a different pair of CSs (CS+ and CS-) trained in each context.During extinction, CS+ and CS-stimuli were presented in the alternative context from that of training, and participants were allowed to freely respond, but no loud noise was presented.Finally, all CSs were tested in both contexts, resulting in a within-subjects ABA versus ABB comparison.Across experiments, participants increased avoidance responses during training and decreased them during extinction, although Experiment 2 revealed less extinction.During the test, responding was higher when CS+ were tested in the training context (ABA) versus the extinction context (ABB), revealing the renewal of instrumental avoidance.Experiment 2 also measured expectancy after the avoidance test and revealed a remarkable similarity between avoidance responses and expectancy ratings.This study shows the renewal of instrumental avoidance in humans, and the results suggest the operation of a modulatory role for the context in renewal, similar to the occasion setting of extinction learning by the context.